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FRONTISPIECE 


THRONE of the Emperor Ch‘ien Lung. In carved red 
lacquer, cut through to inner layers of light 
and dark olive-green, brown and yellow. The 
seat in flat lacquer with brocade cushion. 
Height, 3 ft. 11 in. ; width, 4 ft.14in.; depth, 
3 ft. Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien Lung), 


Victoria and Albert Museum. 


x 


soumerrcnt 





CHINESE LACQUER 


BY EDWARD F. STRANGE 


LATE KEEPER OF THE DEPARTMENT OF WOODWORK 
VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM 


NEW YORK 
CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS 


1926 


PRINTED AND MADE IN GREAT BRITAIN 


600 copies only of this book have been printed, of 
which 100 copies constitute an edition de luxe, num- 
bered 1-100. Of the 500 copies which constitute 
the ordinary edition 160 copies are reserved for the 
United States of America. 


WILLIAM BRENDON AND SON, LIMITED, THE MAYFLOWER PRESS, PLYMOUTH 


CONTENTS 


List of Plates . 


Introduction 
Chapter I. 
Chapter II. 
Chapter III. 
Chapter IV. 


Marks of Date 


The Technique of Chinese Lacquer 
The History of Lacquer in China . 
Subjects of Decoration : 


Descriptions of the Illustrations :— 
Carved Lacquer (Ming) . 
Carved Lacquer (K’ang Hsi) . 
Carved Lacquer (Ch’ien Lung) 
Flat Lacquer (Ming) 

Flat Lacquer (K’ang Hsi) 
Flat Lacquer (Ch’ten Lung) 
Lacquer Inlaid with Shell 


Incised Lacquer . ‘ 
Foo-chow Lacquer : 
Coromandel Lacquer . , 


a 5 ° a 


Motives of Decoration 


Bibliography 
Index 





LiSimOro  PEATES 


CARVED LACQUER 


Ming Dynasty 


Imperial Table for a Marriage Ceremony . 
Imperial Table (Upper Bees 
Table Screen . : 


Box in Two Tiers . : ; : ‘ 
Salver . ; : : : ; , 
Circular Bowl and Cover 

Octagonal Bowl, on Foot : 


Box for Incense, Solid Lacquer 

Box for an Imperial Gift . 

perav, -. : : 

set of Altar Furniture . 

Incense Burner from the above ‘ 
Circular Plaque Framed for a Table Screen 


CARVED LACQUER 


Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hst) 


Circular Covered Box for Ceremonial Gift 


Box for Sweetmeats, Bat-shaped é 

Box and Cover, Peach-shaped, Inlaid with ane 
Table with Grape-vine Pattern : 

Garden Box-seat . . : ‘ 
Flower-Vase for Ceremonial Use s ; 


CARVED LACQUER 


Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 


Vase from the Summer Palace 

Panel, the Taoist Paradise 

Pair of Jars with Covers . : 

Stand for Crystal Ball  . , ; 

Vase for Imperial Gift, on Porcelain . 
Vil 


Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 


Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 


Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 


© COCoOnNnnN DUM HW NN H 


eH 
H O 


ie 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 


17 
18 
1Q 
20 
21 


LIST OF PLATES 


Box for Jewels Plate 22 
Imperial Chair of State Plate 23 
Imperial Threefold Screen 5 Plate 24 
Imperial Stand for Fruit or Flowers . Plate 25 
Panel, Landscape . : Plate 26 
Vase : . > Plateseag 
Throne of the at Chrien leer . Frontispiece 
Back View of the above * Plate 28 
Covered Bowl for Ceremonial Gift . Plate 29 
Box for Incense . ; 4 ; : : Plate 29 
Box for Incense . : ‘ Plate 29 
FLAT LACQUER 
Ming Dynasty 
Bowl of Woven Bamboo, with Panel in Colours . : . Plate 30 
Saucers (two) for Wine Cups, of Woven Bamboo,GoldonBlack Plate 31 
Set of Boxes for Sweetmeats, Gold and Silver . : . Platees 
FLAT LACQUER 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Screen (one panel) with Hunting Scenes, Inlaid with Stones 
(Canton) . : : ; ; : Plate 33 
Screen (three panels) with Eanes Ship and Fisties (Caren Plate 34 
Screen (cresting and one panel) with European Figures, made 
for the Emperor Leopold I (Canton) . ; : .  Platemss 
Cabinet, Gold and Silver on Wine-colour (Canton) . . | Plateyese 
FLAT LACQUER 
Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Picnic Set, in Colours, with Cover of Carved Red Lacquer . Plate 37 
Stand of the above . ; ; : : Plate 38 
Nest of Sweetmeat Dishes, Gold on Blue : is ; . Plate 39 


Vill 


DiSisOr PLATES 


LACQUER INLAID WITH SHELL 


(Lac burgautée, etc.) 


Panel for Wall Decoration, Shell in Red, Ming 


Ewer for Ceremonial Use, Shell, etc., in Black on Pewter, 


Ming : : : : : 
Ewer for Temple Use (lac burgautée), Ming 
Panel for Wall Decoration, Shell in Black, Ming . 
Door of Cabinet (lac burgautée), K’ang Hsi 
Vase (lac burgautée) on Porcelain, Ch’ien Lung 


INCISED LACQUER 


Beaker, Colour Incised on Porcelain, Ming 
Circular Plaque, Colour Incised, Ming 
Cups (a pair) in guri Style, Ming 

Bowl, in guri Style, K’ang Hsi . 


FOOCHOW LACQUER 


Trays (two), Lotus Leaves and Flowers, roth Century 


COROMANDEL LACQUER 


Screen, twelvefold, the Taoist Paradise 
Landscape from the Reverse of the above . 
Flowers from the Border of the above 

Screen (four panels), an Ancient Sea 

Panels (four) from the Reverse of the above 


ix 


Plate 


Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 


Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 


Plate 


Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 
Plate 


40 


4 
42 
43 
44 
45 


46 
47 
48 
48 


49 


50 
51 
52 
3 
34 


a hry 
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Tae se 





INTRODUCTION 


Lacquer-ware is perhaps the most characteristic of the Chinese Industrial 
Arts ; for, in the proper sense of its accepted name, it belongs exclusively 
to that nation and to their pupils, the Japanese. Yet the study of it has been 
curiously neglected in spite of the popularity of the European imitations 
of two centuries and a half. This is probably due to the difficulties of an 
intricate technique and the use of a material unknown, for practical pur- 
poses, outside the zone of its origin. Pottery is of universal use and every- 
one is familiar with it, in one form or another. Lacquer-ware, on the other 
hand, is, for us, always an exotic. Had we the intimate knowledge of its 
fine qualities that we possess of ceramic wares, one might safely assume 
that lacquer would hardly be valued in less degree than the productions of 
the Chinese potter. The purpose of this volume is, so far as may be, to 
bring the story of Chinese lacquer before the public in definite form ; and, 
perhaps, to lay a foundation on which other students may build. 

There is room for much further research, especially in the almost unex- 
plored mass of Chinese literature. Japanese experts, who have never been 
lacking in respect for the source of so much that is best in the arts of their 
own country, are, I believe, now devoting serious attention to this work ; 
and I am indebted especially to the commentary of Mr. Imaizumi of the 
Imperial Museum, Tokys, for valuable information of this sort, published 
in the Kokka. The indebtedness of all students of the arts of China to the 
late Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, is too great to be acknowledged adequately 
in mere words. I had the privilege, in his later years, of his acquaintance ; 
and I would like to pay my inadequate tribute to the generosity with which 
he placed his great knowledge at the disposal of anyone who was really 
interested in the subjects he made his own. I have been allowed by the 
Controller of H.M. Stationery Office to quote from the excellent chapter 
on lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum Handbook on Chinese Art, 
written by Dr. Bushell ; and, by the Director and Secretary of the Museum, 
to reproduce photographs of a number of objects in that collection—now, 
perhaps, one of the best in any public institution. My thanks are also due 
to Dr. Perceval Yetts, Mr. Reynolds Stephens, Mr. James Orange, Mr. 
Ernest Rennie and Mrs. Cooper for permission to illustrate examples in 
their collections and to Messrs, Spink and Sons, Ltd., for the same privilege 
in connection with a number of fine specimens from the remarkable 
exhibition held by them in June, 1925. The Trustees of the British Museum 
kindly permitted me to illustrate the interesting beaker figured in Plate 46 ; 
and Mr. Freeman Smith to reproduce photographs of details of the 
Emperor Leopold the First’s screen (Plate 35). And particularly I must 


X1 


INTRODUCTION 


thank Mr. G. Koizumi for assistance in translations from Japanese 
publications and for the liberal way in which he placed his great knowledge 
of the technique of lacquer at my disposal; Mr. Arthur Waley for his 
valuable translations of the Chinese poems; and Mr. Percy Bunt, of the 
Victoria and Albert Museum Library, for help with the Bibliography. 

I would only add that the attributions of date in this volume must, to some 
extent, be taken as conjectural. They are based on very careful comparison 
of a considerable number of examples of lacquer-ware with some thought 
for style as expressed in other forms of Chinese Art. But there exists very 
little absolute evidence on this point and at present only an opinion can 
generally be given. After all, what matters is the artistic value of an 
object ; and, as to that, one hopes the selection now made may prove to be 
acceptable. 


EDWARD F. STRANGE. 


IQ25¢ 


SS 


CHAPTER I 


THE TECHNIQUE OF CHINESE 
LACQUER 


The nature of the lacquer of the Far East, as used in China, Japan and 
Korea, is by no means generally well understood on account of the con- 
fusion that has arisen owing to the application of the term to a number of 
substances or preparations which differ in all essentials except that, in their 
final form, they present some sort of superficial polish. Indian lac is the 
summy deposit of an insect, the Coccus Lacca; and, as shellac or stick lac, 
has, apart from its use in the countries of its origin, been well known in 
Europe ever since the earliest beginnings of trade with India. In Burma, 
lacquer-ware has been made from the sap of the Melanorrhea usitatissima, 
the process having some analogies with that now to be described, and 
although this cannot be compared, for quality, with the Chinese or Japanese 
products, it, perhaps, of all other methods, comes nearest to them in 
technique. Apart from these natural products, the term is loosely applied 
to various artificial imitations of the Eastern commodity, consisting of 
solutions of resins or gums in turpentine, etc. This is the basis of that 
European lacquer which had so great a vogue from the end of the 17th 
century onwards ; and still engages the attention of collectors, as well as of 
those makers of lacquered furniture who find it profitable to invest modern 
reproductions with—as one of them phrased it—‘* human interest,” by 
imparting to them a very clever and deceptive appearance of age. | 

The lacquer with which we are concerned has (with the not very important 
Burmese exception) very little in common with any of these ; and one must 
regret that no distinctive term has yet been agreed upon to differentiate it 
from its imitations. Chinese and Japanese lacquer is the sap of a tree, the 
Rhus vernicifera (ch’i shu), which is indigenous to China and is cultivated 
throughout the Central and Southern provinces. Paléologue! mentions 
also Angia Sinensis as producing equally good lacquer and states that a 
lower grade is obtained from Dryandria Cordata and Rhus Semialata ; 
but the late Dr. Stephen W. Bushell, who had both the opportunity and 
the scientific knowledge necessary for accurate observations does not 
mention these ; and they may be disregarded. The Rhus vernicifera seems 
not to have been native to Japan ; but must have been introduced into that 
country from China or Korea at a very early date, certainly not later than 
the 6th century of our era. 


1 L’Art Chinois, 1887. 
I B 


CHINESE LACQUER 


The tree is tapped in summer when about ten years old, horizontal incisions 
being made from the foot of the trunk upwards, and in groups, alternately, 
from left to right. At this stage, the sap is a white or greyish viscous fluid 
which darkens and hardens rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere. It 
is collected into large wooden air-tight vessels ; and before use is strained 
through hempen cloth to remove fragments of bark or other physical 
impurities. In order to get rid of an excess of water and to give it an even 
consistency, it is then stirred in a mild heat, or in sunshine. But for the 
addition, if required, of colouring matter, or of adulteration, it is then ready 
for use without further treatment; though the Jesuit Father Bonanni, 
writing early in the 18th century1—a fairly accurate and conscientious 
observer—says that the Chinese mix with it a vegetable oil (“ appellée 
girgili ’’) pressed from seed and of the nature of linseed oil, warmed until 
it becomes rather yellow and thick, in the proportion of 60 drachms of oil 
to 60 ounces of sap. The mixture is stirred au soleil in a wooden vessel with 
a few drachms of vitriol to make it black. The Japanese do not use any 
method of this kind, but Bonanni’s account is probably founded on fact 
and accounts for later stories of the mixture of oil with lacquer in order to 
render the latter fit for use. In any case, it is not necessary. | 

The characteristic constituent of lacquer has been given, by chemists, the 
name of urushiol (from the Japanese name of lacquer, urushi), the formula 
of which is said by Korschelt and Yoshida? to be C,,H,,O.. A recent 
analysis by Professor K. Mijama® puts the average of urushiol in Chinese 
lacquer as low as 55:84 per cent as compared with from 64:00 to 77:6 for 
the Japanese. This may be due to climatic differences, to inferior methods 
of cultivation of the tree, or to want of care in extracting the sap at the 
proper seasons or from trees of the best growth. Indeed, Bonanni says the 
Chinese do not cultivate the lacquer tree, and that they tap it at any age 
or size, even when it is “ grand comme les pins et les sapins d’Europe ’— 
but, again, this is probably a generalisation from incomplete information. 
Lacquer for common use or for export (a great deal has for some time been 
sent to Japan) is, doubtless, treated with little care and is certainly adulter- 
ated. But there is no reason to suppose that, for the best work, suitable 
material was not always selected. A series of the tools, etc., used in the 
process of preparing Japanese lacquer, with an illustration of the actual 


1 Traité de la Composition de Vernis, 1723. 

2 Korschelt (O.) and Yoshida (H.). ‘‘ The Chemistry of Japanese Lacquer,” Asiatic Soc, 
of Japan, Trans. XII, pp. 182, etc. 

3 In Japanese Art and Handicraft, by H. L. Joly and K, Tomita, 1916, p. 50. 


2 


miele CHNTQUETOF CHINESE LACQUER 


gathering of the sap, is exhibited in Museum No. 1 of the Royal Botanic 
Gardens, Kew; and will be of value to students, as the Chinese method 
may be taken as identical for all practical purposes. 

The basis of lacquer-ware is almost always wood; though porcelain, 
brass and white metal alloys were also occasionally used. Examples of 
these are described below. With such exceptions, and a few rare cases 
where objects are carved out of solid lacquer, it will be assumed that all the 
references in the text of this volume are to lacquer-ware of wood. 

This is generally a sort of pine, of soft and even grain, worked, in the 
smaller pieces to an astonishing thinness and evenness of texture. Larger 
objects have, of course, sufficient substance for strength; but never an 
excess. The accuracy and beauty of the curves of bowls, vases and the like 
are remarkable, especially in examples of considerable size. When the 
wooden fabric of the object has been finished, its surfaces are carefully 
smoothed ; all knots, pin-heads or projections of any kind reduced, cracks 
or other irregularities made good and luted, as well as the joins, with a 
composition of rice paste and lacquer, until all is as even as possible. A 
dressing of lacquer is then applied to fill up the pores of the wood and 
provide a base for the processes that follow. On this is applied a priming 
consisting of one or two coats of composition, made by mixing lacquer with 
finely ground burnt clay or similar material, which, when hard, is ground 
to a fine surface with whetstone. Some of the old writers have said that 
in this composition, the Chinese occasionally used pig’s blood and powdered 
quicklime. It is quite possible ; and this is probably the foundation of the 
legend that inferior qualities of red lacquer are coloured with pig’s blood 
instead of with cinnabar. In other cases of old Chinese flat lacquer a 
priming of oil only was used, which would account for the thinness and 
general inferiority of this ware as compared with that of the Japanese. 

A period of at least twelve hours would be needed for the composition 
to be ready to receive its next coat, a layer of hempen cloth, linen, paper 
or—especially in the case of Foo-chow lacquer—silk. This is again 
smoothed with a knife, to receive several more dressings of fine composition, 
each being given time to harden, and to be ground to an even surface 
before the next application. On this, successive applications of lacquer are 
made until the required thickness is obtained ; it being clearly understood 
that each must dry and be ground fine before the next is laid on. In the 
case of flat lacquer the number of coats would have been, as a rule, less 
than was involved by the Japanese method; but a substantial thickness 
was obtained, even by the Chinese, before the decorative artist began his 


3 


CHINESE LACQUER 


work. The extent of the work involved in these preliminaries will be 
better realised when it is understood that each coat of lacquer, as applied, 
is only of about the thickness of a thin coat of paint ; and that this is further 
reduced by the repeated grinding and polishing operations. 

The decoration of flat or painted lacquer, hua ch’i (as it may be conveni- 
ently termed in comparison with the carved lacquer shortly to be described), 
proceeds on similar lines. The design is painted on the prepared ground 
with lacquer coloured as required ; is allowed to harden, and is then again 
overlaid with a thin coat of clear lacquer. Gold dust may be incorporated at 
this stage; though, in regard to the use of gold, the Chinese have never 
developed its possibilities to anything like the extent of the Japanese. 
On the other hand, they have made use of a far wider range of colours, 
including turquoise and slate-blue, several greens, a red as of wine-lees and 
a rose-red, white, aubergine or plum-colour and a brilliant yellow ; as well 
as the vermilion, brown, etc., favoured by their rivals. At the same time 
there is no doubt that the apparent neglect by the Chinese lacquerers, of 
the use of gold and silver was a matter of fashion rather than of knowledge. 
In Hsui-shih-lu, a manuscript on the Art of Lacquering written during the 
reign of the Emperor T’ien Ch’i (A.D. 1621-1628),! it is clearly stated that 
gold was used in fine powder, in coarse pieces like rice husks, filings (as 
in the Japanese hirame) and gold leaf—‘ in emulation of the beauties of 
Nature.” In this respect gold was to be compared with the sun, and silver 
with the moon and the filings and small details adjusted with due regard to 
the principle of the greater in relation to the lesser dignity. Other technical 
details were suggestive of the stars and the wind ; while, in the design, the 
rocks were to be as thunder. Brushes (symbolical of rain) of horse hair, wild 
pig’s hair or rat’s hair, were used by the artists who did the decorative 
portion of the work. 

What has been said with reference to the Chinese use of gold applies 
similarly to that of lacquer decoration in relief (the Japanese takamakiye 
and hiramakiye). This class of ornament certainly dates back to the period 
of the Ming Dynasty, and is mentioned in the Hsui-shih-lu ; which, in 
allegorical vein, compares it with the ups and downs of Nature. This 
relief is modelled with a putty made of lacquer, fine charcoal, white lead, 
lamp-black or similar substances with a proportion of camphor ; the effect 
of the latter being to facilitate the working. On this, further coats of 
lacquer are applied, hardened and polished. 

At this stage a curious property of lacquer may be mentioned—one that 

1 Yuisaku Imaizumi, Kokka, No. 113, etc. 


4 


foe eBCHNIQUE OF CHINESE LACQUER 


might seem to involve a contradiction in terms. The hardening process 
which is so essential to every stage in the preparation of lacquer-ware is 
expedited and perfected by the presence of moisture ; and one may say 
with truth that the lacquer dries in a moist atmosphere. For this purpose 
the Japanese use damp boxes, or chambers, and the Chinese employ a 
similar expedient. The Ming manuscript referred to, states that the 
Chinese use a “ cave ”’ in the ground and place the objects therein at night, 
so as to get the benefit of the cool damp air. In this atmosphere, the lacquer 
acquires a degree of hardness that enables it to be polished with whetstone, 
bone-dust, etc. ; to be engraved with lines having the clean-cut precision 
of copper-engraving and to be carved like ivory or box-wood. It can, 
moreover, be given a polish which in brilliancy is not inferior to that of 
glazed porcelain or enamels. 

The engraved work may be, as stated above, as delicate in line as dry- 
point; or incised in bold lines heightened with colour for decorative 
purposes as in examples described below. There is no doubt that the 
similar Japanese method of decoration, called by them, chinkinbori, was 
directly derived from China—according to a leading Japanese authority, 
in the period A.D. 1716-1735. The Victoria and Albert Museum, however, 
possesses a Japanese example of this work which must be placed in the 
middle of the 17th century ; and this affords good ground for assuming 
that engraved or incised lacquer was made in China at least as early as the 
later Ming period. 

But of all classes of Chinese ware, the carved lacquer, tiao ch’, is not only 
the best known, but the most characteristic. In this, at least, the Chinese 
have never, admittedly, been rivalled even by the Japanese—and no one 
else has ventured to imitate it. This lacquer was built up in the manner 
already described; but the process was continued until a much greater 
thickness was obtained—even approaching, in extreme cases, nearly to 
half an inch. When two or more colours were to be incorporated in the 
design, the layers of each had to be placed in the order in which they would 
ultimately be required ; and it was necessary that each layer should be of 
exactly uniform thickness. The precision with which that preliminary 
work was carried out can be seen from a cross section of a fragment ex- 
hibited in Room 41 of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Not until the 
whole mass was completed and of perfectly homogeneous texture could the 
cutting begin; for this was done, inwards, from the surface. There was 
no modelling or building-up of ornament in the manner in which Western 
sculptors handle their clay. 


CHINESE LACQUER 


Very careful general instructions are given by the Ming writer. Knives 
of various patterns were used ; and these were to be kept sharp and well 
controlled, so that no slips should take place. The carving should be 
V-shaped in section, with clean, direct cuts, but carried out with restraint ; 
care being taken not to cut away too much lacquer at a time, so as to make 
the work “ lean.”’ There must be no hesitation. The writer advises that 
the sharp edges left in cutting the design should be polished down; but 
this was not invariably done; later, and especially during the reign of 
Ch’ien Lung, sharpness of the cutting seems to have been particularly 
aimed at. We are also told that an excess of colour rendered the lacquer 
brittle. 

It is necessary here to correct one of the very few errors made by that great 
student of Chinese Art, Dr. Bushell—whose services cannot too highly be 
acknowledged. In his account of the process he says, “‘ the crust while 
still warm is carved with a knife.”! As will already have been seen, the 
lacquer was not only not applied warm, but the long and laborious process 
of building it up made this impossible. It was carved when not only cold, 
but hard ; although the ultimate degree of hardness would not be reached 
until after the work had been finished. One cannot refrain from pointing 
out here, even at the expense of some repetition, how wonderful was the 
craftmanship which so ordered this cutting that, in the most minute and 
elaborate patterns, only the exact depth and no more was reached, to bring 
to the light of day the hidden layer of colour needed for the pattern, where 
more than one was in question. The colour most commonly found is 
vermilion (tan-sha), derived from cinnabar (red sulphuret of mercury). 
It varies in different specimens from an almost claret colour to a bright 
“ sealino-wax ”’ red. Other colours most frequently found in Chinese 
carved lacquer, are a deep green and a lighter olive-green, buff, brown and 
black ; more rarely, aubergine or plum-colour. Meyer says of cinnabar 
that it is “‘ the basis of all the magic compounds prepared by the Taoist 
doctors,”’ and plays a large part in Taoist alchemy. One may perhaps, 
therefore, recognise an abstruse symbolism in the favour given to lacquer 
of this colour. 

One more detail of the technical process is worth recording, namely, that 
the workshop should be so constructed as to give the greatest possible 
protection from wind and dust—an obvious precaution, considering the 
nature of the material and of the work. 

From very early times, carved lacquer has been closely and dangerously 

1 “ Chinese Art,” V. and A. Museum Handbook, ed. 1921, p. 118. 
6 


freer CoN TIOUEFOER CHINESE LACQUER 


imitated by the Chinese themselves. In Book VIII, under the heading 
Ku ch’t chi lun, of the Ko ku yao lun, a work on literary and artistic 
antiquities by Tsao Ch’ao, published in the reign of the founder of the Ming 
Dynasty, Hung Wu (A.D. 1387) and translated by Dr. Bushell,’ we find the 
following reference to the subject :—‘‘ The imitations of carved red lacquer 
are made by working the design in relief with a kind of putty made of lime 
and simply lacquering it over with a coat of cinnabar lac; hence the name 
of tui hung (painted red lacquer). The principal things made are sword 
rings and perfume cases of floral design, which are worth very little money. 
It is also called chao hung (plastered red) and is now very common at Ta-li 
Fu in the province of Yunnan.” This putty would be the lacquer com- 
position referred to earlier in this chapter, or something of a similar nature. 
Such imitations, generally of small-sized ware were certainly made through- 
out the whole period of good carved lacquer—and, although most of the 
examples one meets are not earlier than the time of Ch’ien Lung, it is 
advisable for the collector to be on his guard. A small chip with a knife 
will generally reveal the truth ; and show whether the red lacquer is really 
more than a thin coating over composition. With the latter, moreover, 
stamps were often used for the diaper ground; and this can often be 
detected merely by close observation. 

A third class of imitations, also of considerable antiquity, consists simply 
of carved wood with a heavy coat of lacquer. In appearance, this work is 
more deceptive than the latter. The designs are generally bold and with 
softened outlines, after the Ming style mentioned above ; and the carving 
is often admirably executed. But, again, a slight cut, if one is possible, 
or the examination of a break, with a strong lens, will generally reveal the 
nature of the work. The Japanese Kamakura-bort is in technique practically 
identical with this class of lacquer-ware, which no doubt inspired it. This 
is said to have been introduced into Japan about the end of the 12th 
century. The style disappeared at the end of the 16th century ; but was 
revived later on. It may here be convenient to remark that there is only a 
technical resemblance between Kamakura-bori and Chinese carved lacquer. 
The Japanese carved lacquer in the same way, though neither with the 
same skill nor to anything like the same extent, as the Chinese—the equiva- 
lents in the former country being known as tsui-shu (red) and tsui-koku 
(black). The method is said to have been introduced into Japan from 
China during the second half of the 15th century, by a Chinese lacquerer 
whose name is transliterated into Japanese characters reading Monniu. 

1 Chinese Art, p. 112. 


7 


CHINESE LACQUER 


It was much favoured by the makers of inrd (medicine cases) during the 
17th and 18th centuries ; and both the classes of imitation described above 
were freely practised in Japan. The Japanese composition was made of 
lacquer, glue, and wheat-flour or similar starchy material with some 
strengthening admixture. The Chinese no doubt instructed their pupils in 
this respect ; and it is reasonable to suppose that the methods of imitation 
were pretty much the same in both countries. 

A favourite and very attractive method of decorating lacquer-ware was by 
the use of inlay of shell. This must have been one of the earliest forms of 
decoration used in China, for the Imperial Treasures at Nara in Japan, 
include examples, beyond question, Chinese, which date back at least to 
the 8th century of our era. For this purpose, various shells were employed 
—mother-of-pearl for large work, the nautilus, pear-shell and especially the 
sea-ear, haliotis (the Japanese awabi) and Turbo cornutus (Japanese sazaye), 
etc. From the sea-ear were obtained those charming effects of iridescent 
green, and blue, which, enriched with gold and silver and delicately en- 
graved, form the ornament of the class of ware called by the French laque 
burgautée (from burgau, another name of the shell). This decoration was 
practised in the Ming period ; and to it, the Chinese gave the pretty and 
appropriate name of “ misty brocade.”’ In late work, the iridescence is 
artificially produced by foil and colouring matter on the inner side of the 
thin lamine of shell. Shell-dust was also used ; and, occasionally, tessere 
of shell cut in the style of the Japanese kirtkane. Lacquer was also inlaid 
and encrusted with jade, turquoise, malachite, rose quartz, lapis lazuli and 
other hard stones, as well as with coral, soapstone, glazed porcelain, ivory, 
etc. In a few cases enamel was used. 

Among the colours used, Dr. Bushell mentions gamboge, for colouring 
the finest transparent lacquer, chao ch’i, used as a medium for metallic 
gold; “ painter’s golden lacquer,’ hua chin ch’i, of amber tone, chiefly 
used to mix with pallet colours and owing its tint to an addition of pig’s 
gall and vegetable oil ; the vermilion lacquer already mentioned, chu ch’t, 
made by grinding native cinnabar, chu sha, with pure lacquer; and an 
inferior red produced by the substitution of colcothar. Black lacquer, 
het ch't, is prepared, in many grades, by adding iron sulphate or iron 
filings mixed with rice vinegar to lacquer and stirring in mild heat to 
remove the excess of water. Chestnut brown is a mixture of cinnabar and 
black lacquer ; buff is ochre ; a greenish yellow is obtained from orpiment, 
the yellow sulphide of arsenic, and a deeper and fuller green by mixing orpi- 
ment with indigo. Safflower, Carthamus tinctorius, supplies a carmine- 


8 


ee) hCUNTOURBORT CHINESE LACQUER 


red; and soot or charcoal, animal or vegetable, an opaque black. The 
use of gold and silver has already been noted; these are imitated with 
brass, bronze, copper or tin dust, foil or filings. 

A curious statement is made by a French writer! of the 18th century, who 
says that the lustre of black Chinese lacquer can be restored by exposing 
it at night to frost ; or, better still, by burying it in snow for some time. 
One gives this for what it is worth ; but there would be little or no risk in 
making the experiment. The lacquer-ware that was shipwrecked on its 
way back to Japan from the Vienna Exhibition, was none the worse, when 
recovered, after immersion for eighteen months in sea water. 

The so-called ‘‘ Coromandel’’ lacquer—which is purely of Chinese origin— 
is much simpler in technique than any of the styles described above. A 
substantial basis of wood is overlaid with lacquer composition, on a priming 
of canvas, to a thickness of rather more than 34, of an inch and the surface 
given a coating of polished lacquer, generally black but occasionally dark 
brown or red. On this the design is boldly carved in intaglio ; the portions 
hollowed out being then coloured or gilt. This work, which is of superb 
decorative effect in its best forms, only seems to occur in the flat ; and was 
one of the earliest kinds of Chinese lacquer to attract the attention (and 
incite the emulation) of Western nations. It was being imitated in this 
country before the end of the 17th century; and Stalker in the Art of 
Japanning (1688) gives recipes for the counterfeit. It was used chiefly, if 
not entirely for screens; but very many of these have been cut up for 
cabinets and other articles of furniture. The process, as in one of the 
examples described below, was sometimes used in conjunction with flat 
lacquer or lacquer in relief of the ordinary kinds. 

Coromandel lacquer is said to have been made chiefly in the Province 
of Honan and thence to have been shipped, in Chinese boats, to the ports 
on the Coromandel coast. It consisted mainly of twelvefold screens, 
corresponding to the twelve months of the year and can hardly, so far as 
we can judge from known examples, be given an origin earlier than the 
last years of the Ming dynasty. To this period must belong a remarkable 
example reproduced by Monsieur E. A. Séguy? in which Europeans, in 
costume of about this period, are represented in hunting scenes, in which 
a caged animal—which suggests the Indian cheetah—is being used. 

John Stalker, writing in 1688* has a good deal to say about what he calls 


1 Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire des Sciences, des Arts et des Meétiers, Neufchatel, 1765. 
* Séguy, E. A., Les Laques du Coromandel, 1922. 
3 A Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing, Oxford, 1688. 


9 


CHINESE LACQUER 


“ Bantam work ’’; and gives detailed instructions for the imitation of it. 
The point of interest to us, however, is that, at so early a date, he remarks 
that ‘‘ since it is now almost obsolete, and out of fashion, out of use and 
neglected, we thought it a thankless trouble and charge to affix a Pattern, 
which could neither advantage Us, or oblige You: I think no person is 
fond of it, or gives it house-room, except some who have made new 
Cabinets out of old Skreens. And from that large old piece, by the help 
of a Joyner, make little ones, such as Stands or Tables, but never consider 
the situation of their figures ; so that in these things so torn and hacked to 
joint a new fancie, you may observe the finest hodgpodg and medly of men 
and Trees turned topsie turvie. . . .”’ This reference suggests an earlier 
importation of this class of work than has generally been considered to be 
the case ; but the eloquent Mr. Stalker’s comments must be accepted with 
some reserve. Screens of the kind were certainly being imported in con- 
siderable quantities by the East India Company at a later date, and con- 
tinued to be a regular article of trade for some time. They were, as Stalker 
says, and as we know from the survivals, remorselessly cut up for all sorts 
of other furniture. The old name is no doubt derived from the fact that 
the town of Bantam was the principal market and centre of distribution for 
this work, the Chinese origin of which does not seem to have been known 
to the few early writers who mention it. Ephraim Chambers’s Cyclopedia 
(Supplement, 1753) for instance—defines Bantam work, as “a kind of 
Indian painting and carving on wood resembling Japan work only more 
gay ’’; and this is repeated in the 1788 edition. Bantam was the head- 
quarters of the Dutch East India Company until about 1816. From 1603 
to 1682 the English East India Company had a factory there, which exercised 
control over the Company’s establishments on the Coromandel Coast ; 
and this connection may give a hint as to the origin of the latter term as 
applied to this work. But I have not been able definitely to trace the 
change of nomenclature. The French would naturally use the term 
Coromandel—as their chief port for Far Eastern trade was Pondicherry, 
on that coast; and it seems possible that, in the revival of interest in Chinese 
Art, we owe to that nation a name which has come to be adopted in this 
country. 

Carved lacquer was chiefly made, during the period of its best quality, at 
Peking and Soochou—at the former place, under the patronage of the 
Ming and Ch’ing Emperors. No doubt, a good deal of earlier ware was 
produced at the old capital, Nanking ; and in the Sung period at Chia- 
hsing Fu, about half-way between Hangchou and Soochou. Flat lacquer 


IO 


ire reo Nt OME Or CHINESE LACQUER 


and lacquer in relief seems to have been especially associated with Canton ; 
and to this district belong, one may safely assume, the screens in which 
European figures form part of the decoration. Nineteenth-century Canton 
lacquer is thin and poor in quality and generally overloaded with ornament 
—a mere commercial product. 

The modern style of Foo-chow lacquer was evolved by a craftsman 
named Shen Shao An, about three centuries ago ; and has been continued 
by his descendants to quite recent times, lacquer-ware by the last of the 
family, Shen Cheng Hao, having been exhibited in Europe within the last 
twenty years. It is remarkable for its fine surface, said to be due, in part 
at all events, to the use of silk instead of paper or canvas as a basis for the 
priming ; and also to the care with which properly matured and otherwise 
suitable wood was selected. A good effect is produced by the use of very 
fine gold or silver dust ; employed so as to give a sort of lustre to the 
lacquer which is very pleasing. In quite modern work a wide range of 
colours appears combined occasionally with bold carving, in the form of 
stands, brackets and the like. 

One use of lacquer, although outside the scope of this volume, is too 
interesting to be passed without notice ; namely, that method of modelling 
called by the Japanese Kanshitsu. In the earliest form of this, a skeleton 
of wood was covered with a mixture of lacquer, clay, fibre or lint and 
modelled when still wet. Later, cloths saturated with fresh lacquer were 
draped on the wooden base, quickly stiffening into the required shape. 
In a later process still a clay core was used, on which lacquered cloths 
were moulded. When both lacquer and clay were dry, the latter was 
beaten out, leaving a tough shell, impervious to wet or the attacks of 
insects and providing a good surface for the application of gold or colours. 
These methods were practised during the 7th and 8th centuries and re- 
vived for a short time in the early years of the Yuan Dynasty; and were 
responsible for the production of some of the best statuary of the period. 


Il 


CHAPTER II 


THE HISTORY, OB CA COUSR SEM 
CHINA 


According to native writers, the use of lacquer in China goes back to the 
legendary period of the history of the country. The Hsui-shih-lu has already 
been mentioned, of which only an ancient manuscript copy in the Imperial 
Library at Toky6 (and that since destroyed in the disastrous fire following 
the recent great earthquake) was known by Mr. Imaizumi Yusaku to exist. 
This was written by Seits6 YOmei between A.D. 1621 and 1628; and is our 
authority for the account which follows—traditional, no doubt, to a con- 
siderable extent, but by no means to be disregarded for that reason. 

In this it is stated that the earliest use of lacquer was for writing on 
bamboo slips—the most ancient form of book. The Emperor Shun, the 
fifth of the Five Rulers whose name is one of those—says Dr. Bushell— 
*“ placed by Confucius at the head of the Shu Ching, the classical annals 
compiled by him,’’ made use of utensils for food, of black lacquer. His 
successor, Yu, who cast the famous nine bronze tripods, carved with maps 
and figures, which, after 2000 years were lost in B.c. 333, is said to have 
had lacquered vessels made for ceremonial use, black outside and red within, 
and with pictorial designs. In his time, also, lacquer was allowed to be 
used in payment of taxes; a practice also found in the earliest (but much 
later) history of the industry, in Japan. During the Chou Dynasty 
(B.C. 1122-255) lacquer was used for the decoration of carriages and harness, 
under official regulations, and ornamented with patterns of animal-forms. 
Bows and arrows, also were adorned with it, as well as ceremonial utensils. 
At this time, gold and colours came into use as well as carved lacquer ; 
and the material is stated to have been put to many other purposes and 
much valued for its hardness and the brilliance of its polish. The Emperor 
Ch’éng (B.c. 246-221) decorated his castle with lacquer. His successor 
was murdered by the eunuch Chao Kao, who lacquered his skull and used 
it as a drinking-cup (B.c. 207). At this period, lacquer was applied to 
armour, writing materials, utensils for banquets and musical instruments 
and for the decoration of palaces. During the Han Dynasty (B.c. 206- 
A.D. 25) the latter practice was further developed. It is recorded that the 
central gate of one of the Empresses was lacquered red and also that the 
material now began to be used for the paraphernalia of funerals. The 
writer here makes a note of the poisonous qualities of lacquer, which, if 
used without care, produces an eruption on the skin. The leaves, however, 


I2 


HISTORY OF LACQUER IN CHINA 


have a medicinal value. At this point we are able to make some slight 
contact with definite fact; for a Japanese archeologist, Mr. Rytizo Torii, 
in the course of excavations of the shell-mounds near Port Arthur, found, 
in 1910, remains of pot-covers of paper, lacquered red, which he definitely 
attributes to the Han Dynasty. The Ming author proceeds to remark that 
lacquer of the T’ang Dynasty must now be looked on as archaic. It was 
during Sung (A.D. 960-1127) that the art became well developed and 
modern methods practised. There had been no special class of lacquer- 
workers until the Han Dynasty—any artisan used the material; but to- 
wards the end of that epoch such progress was made and the demand so 
increased that the industry became organised as a separate craft, and the 
names of a few individual artists were first recorded. 

With regard to the foregoing, it should be noted that Mr. Imaizumi 
thinks that the reference to carved lacquer having been made under the 
Chou Emperors is merely a fanciful way of suggesting general progress ; 
and that the story of the lacquered skull only implies the old base uses of 
lacquer as compared with that later development of the art which, in his 
opinion, received its first stimulus from the Imperial patronage extended 
to it in such early times. 

At this point, it is of value to remark that in Korea, an office charged 
with business relating to lacquer is recorded to have been in existence after 
the three old kingdoms had been united under Sinla (about a.D. 669) and 
references to the cultivation and use of lacquer occur from that time on- 
wards. It was chiefly employed for domestic utensils; and a frequent 
method of decoration at a later date was by means of inlaid shell, a process 
said to have been introduced from Japan in the 1ath century. Recent 
explorations of graves which are being systematically conducted by the 
Japanese, have yielded evidence of a considerable skill in decoration of 
various kinds ; and among the objects found have been lacquered incense 
boxes, decorated with shell, and combs, authentically belonging to the 
Koryo period (A.D. 918-1391). 

Fortunately, the progress made in the art of lacquer by the 8th century 
of our era, can be measured far more completely, and without room for 
the shadow of a doubt, by other means than the uncertain accounts of 
Chinese literati or the wreckage of ancient monuments. Buddhism was 
introduced into Japan in the 6th century a.D., first from Korea. During 
the reign of the Empress Saiko-Tenné (A.D. 592-628), the Regent Shotoku- 
Taishi, who adopted the new religion, devoted himself not only to its 
extension but to the promotion of close and friendly intercourse with China. 


8: 


CHINESE LACQUER 


The Horya-ji Temple, founded by him in A.D. 607, still exists; and 
contains many objects of art either brought from China or Korea or 
made in Japan under the influence of Buddhist priests from those countries, 
by whom the foundations of Japanese Art were laid. Among them are 
specimens of Chinese lacquer of the greatest historical and artistic value.? 
Chinese influence, both in literature and in art, became, henceforth, 
predominant in Japan for a considerable period. The Emperor Shomu- 
Tenno (A.D. 724-749) adopted the mode of a Buddhist monk. Shortly 
after his death, his Empress, Komyo-k6g6, deposited in the Shds6-in 
(“‘ lonely building ”’) of the Todaiji at Nara, all the treasures collected by 
the late Emperor, with many added by herself (a.D. 756) ; and this wonder- 
ful collection remains almost inviolate to the present day. 

Among these treasures are a number that are certainly of Chinese origin ; 
and constitute, in fact, the only reliable evidence of the state of the lacquer 
industry at that early date. For instance, there are musical instruments 
in which the decoration is in the method called by the Japanese heidatsu, 
in which cut-out figures of gold or silver were laid on the surface, covered 
with many successive coats of lacquer and then rubbed down till the metal 
was again brought to light. This process has not been practised either in 
Japan or China for many centuries: but it produced a very effective 
decoration. One of the instruments—a koto—has the name of the Chinese 
maker of the T’ang period transliterated by the Japanese as “* Shihei-i ka.” 
Lacquer in this method was also applied to leather. Another process 
involved the use of gold or silver dust for patterns in lacquer-ware ; and, 
apart from these decorative groups, lacquer in simpler forms occurs in a 
large variety of objects, boxes of all sorts, sword-sheaths, covers of bottles, 
stands for Buddhistic images, mirror-backs, etc. There is no doubt that 
a considerable number of these things are actually Chinese in origin ; and 
that many others were, if made in Japan, done under direct Chinese in- 
fluence. The authenticity of the collection is unimpeachable—and it 
stands out as a solitary but inviolable record of the arts of China, Korea 
and Japan in the 8th century.? 


SUNG AND YUAN DYNASTIES 
' The Ko ku yao lun, already mentioned, gives the following account of 
the industry under the Sung (A.D. 960-1279) and Yuan (A.D. 1280-1367) 


1 Japanese Temples and their Treasures, Tokys, 1910. 
2 Omura Seigat, Record of the Imperial Treasury, Shosoin, Téky6, 1910, and Toyei Shuko, 
Illustrated Catalogue of Ancient Imperial Treasury, called Shosoin, Tokys6, 1909. 


14 


Hist ORYeOFRPCAGCQUER IN CHINA 


Dynasties. “‘ During the Sung Dynasty the utensils intended for the 
imperial palace were generally made of gold and silver lacquer with plain 
uncarved surface. 

“ During the Yuan Dynasty a new manufactory was established at Chia- 
hsing Fu, in the province of Che-kiang, at Hsi-t’ang Yang-hui, which 
produced a large quantity of lacquer, carved for the most part deeply and 
in high relief. But the body is generally wanting in solidity, and the yellow 
ground, especially, easily chips and breaks off. 

“Under the Yuan Dynasty at Hsi-t’ang Yang-hui in the prefecture of 
Chia-hsing, Chang Ch’éng and Yang Mao gained a great reputation for 
their carved works in red lacquer (T’i Hung), but in much of it the cinnabar 
coating is too thin and does not wear well. In the countries of Japan and 
Liuchiu, however, they are extremely fond of the productions of these two 
craftsmen. 

“In the beginning of the Yuan Dynasty (A.D. 1280) an artist named 
P’éng Chiin-pao, who lived at Hsi-t’ang, became celebrated for his paintings 
in gold on lacquer (Ch’iang Chin) and his landscape and figure scenes, 
pavilions and temples, flower sprays and trees, animals and birds, were all 
alike cleverly designed and finely finished. 

“ Cups and other specimens of pierced lacquer (Tsuan Hsi), in which 
the body is strong and solid, are generally old pieces dating from the Sung 
Dynasty, in which the gold decorations of figure scenes and picturesque 
views have been pierced through with a drill or metal borer, so as to com- 
plete the designs in open work. 

“ Lacquer-ware inlaid with mother-of-pearl is a special production of the 
province of Kiangsi, being made at Lu-ling Hsien, in the prefecture 
Chi-an Fu. The articles specially made here for the imperial palace 
during the Sung Dynasty, and the older productions generally, are all very 
strongly lacquered. Some of the best are strengthened by the inlay of a 
network of copper wire. Through the whole period of the Yuan Dynasty 
rich families were accustomed to have lacquer made for them here, which 
was solidly put on, and the figure decoration was perfectly designed and 
beautifully finished.” 

Dr. Bushell remarks that the foregoing notes prove that “ all branches of 
lacquer work now carried on in China can be traced as far back at least as 
the Sung Dynasty, and that the chief centre of manufacture at that period 
was Chia-hsing Fu,’’ an important city between Hangchou, the capital 
of the Southern Sung and Soochou, which also, later, was an important 
centre of the industry. It is unfortunate that, so far as we know, no 


15 


CHINESE LACQUER 


authentic specimen of the lacquer-ware of this great period in Chinese Art 
has yet been authentically identified and described. Probably, there are 
examples among the still unexplored or imperfectly catalogued treasures of 
Japan; and we are more likely to get reliable information on the subject 
from the keen art historians of that country than from China in its present 
state. In view of the certain knowledge we possess of the fine productions 
of Chinese artisans in other handicrafts, there is no reason why the 
descriptions of the progress of the lacquer industry, quoted above, should 
be disregarded or even discounted. We know, to some extent, what the 
Japanese lacquerers of the period were doing; and it is at least reason- 
able to conclude that China, as in other arts, did not then lag behind. 

Dr. Perceval Yetts has indicated! an interesting use of lacquer as a pro- 
tective covering of Sung bronzes; and some few domestic utensils found 
in excavations are, otherwise, all we have at present to go on, so far as 
concerns actual examples. The importance already attained by the 
industry towards the close of the period may, however, be estimated from 
the fact that in the Chao yu kua (translated by Dr. Hirth) it is stated that 
in A.D. 1220 lacquer-wares were exported from China to Bruni (Borneo), 
Cochin China, Java, Sumatra, Malabar, Zanzibar, Persia, Japan, Mecca, 
Ceylon, India, etc., the chief market being Ch’iian-chou-fu, in Fukien. 


MING DYNASTY 


The Chinese accounts of the lacquer industry during the Ming Dynasty 
have, at least, the virtue of having been written by contemporary historians ; 
and we are now able, in some degree, to turn to the study of actual speci- 
mens. The earliest description is the Ko ku yao lun, published during the 
reign of the first Ming Emperor; from which the following notes are 
extracted :— 

“‘ Among the cups and other articles of old carved lacquer fashioned after 
those of rhinoceros horn (Ku Hsi P’i), the best are reddish brown in colour, 
with smooth polished surface, like fine earthenware underneath; the lacquer 
is lustrous, of strong substance and thin. The variety of a lighter red tint 
resembling the fruit of the cultivated Shantung jujube (Zizyphus communis) 
is known commonly as jujube lacquer. There are also some in which the 
carving is deeply cut and in strong relief, but these are classed lower.” 

During Ming, imitations seem first to have been common ; and several 
references are made to them. For instance, in the account of carved red 


1 “ Chinese Art ”’ (Burlington Magazine monograph), 1925, Plate 13. 
16 


HISTORY OF LACQUER IN CHINA 


lacquer, we have—‘‘ In the present time at Ta-li Fu, in the province of 
Yunnan, there are special factories of this lacquer, although much of 
their production is a spurious imitation. Many of the noble families of 
Nanking have real specimens in their houses. There is one kind in which 
the lacquer is entirely cinnabar red ; another kind in which black is used 
in combination with the red. Good specimens are very valuable, but there 
are many later imitations and great care is required to distinguish them.” 
With regard to gold lacquer, it is noted that, “‘ At Ning-kuo Fu, in the 
adjoining province of Kiangnan, the lacquerers of the present day decorate 
the lacquer with pictures pencilled in gold (miao chin); and in the two 
capitals (Nanking and Peking) also, the workshops turn out a great deal 
of lacquer decorated in the same syle.’”’ On the subject of inlay of 
mother-of-pearl, we again meet evidence of fraud and decadence. ‘* The 
modern work of Lu-ling is plastered with lime and pig’s blood mixed with 
vegetable oil (this would be the basis on which only a thin coat of lacquer 
would be overlaid) and is not strong but very easily damaged. Some use 
starch made from the rhizomes of the lotus, which is still weaker and wears 
off more quickly. The only good work of to-day is that made in private 
houses (i.e. by individual craftsmen and not in factories) which is fairly 
strong and lasting. Old houses in the several departments of Chi-an Fu 
often contain beds, chairs and screens, incrusted with mother-of-pearl 
figures of beautifully finished execution, which excite universal admiration. 
Among the things made here at the large houses are round boxes with 
covers for fruit, hanging plaques with inscriptions and chairs of Tartar 
fashion, which are hardly inferior to the old work, because, no doubt, they 
are of home manufacture.” 

Dr. Bushell also quotes! from the Ch’ing pi ts’ang, ‘‘ Collection of Artistic 
Rarities "’; a little book in two parts on various works of art, by Chang 
Ying-wén, who wrote the last page on the day he died. It was published, 
with a preface by his son, Chang Ch’ien-te, in 1595. Incidentally it refers 
to a loan exhibition of works of art, in the province of Kiangsu, contributed 
from the collections of four of the principal families of the province, in 
1530. The writer states that in “ our own Ming Dynasty, the carved lacquer 
made in the reign of Yung Lo (A.D. 1403-1424) in the Kuo Yuan Ch’ang 
factory and that made in the reign of Hsiian Té (A.D. 1426-1435) not only 
excelled in the cinnabar colouring and in the finished technique of the 
body, but also in the literary style of the inscriptions which were etched 
beneath the pieces. The inscription Ta Ming Yung Lo nien chih (made 

1 Chinese Art, p. 113. 


yy Cc 


CHINESE LACQUER 


in the reign of Yung Lo of the Great Ming) was etched with a needle and 
filled in with black lac. The inscription Ta Ming Hstian Té nien chih (‘ made 
in the reign of Hsiian Té of the Great Ming ’) was engraved with a knife 
and filled in with gold. The craftsmen in their skill with the knife rivalled 
their predecessors of the Sung and succeeded in establishing a new school 
of glyptic art. The lacquer-ware of thin body flecked with powdered gold, 
the lacquer work incrusted with mother-of-pearl, and the lacquer inlaid 
with plaques of beaten gold and silver, these three kinds are especially 
admired, even by the Japanese. The spurious imitations are of coarse 
heavy make and easy of detection.” The statement that this work was 
admired “‘ even by the Japanese ”’ is a tribute to the high standard attained 
by the rival country. 

The establishment of the Peking factory is also mentioned in the Hsui- 
shih-lu, which refers, moreover, to the engraving of date-seals. This work 
adds that the period was remarkable for a largely increased production 
and the introduction of many new methods ; and that as many as thirty-six 
coats of lacquer were now used on a basis of wood or white metal. Red 
lacquer was much in vogue, the bases being generally lacquered black. We 
are able to reproduce an illustration of specimens of the carved lacquer 
produced in the reign of Hsiian-Té (Plate 3). The chaos into which the 
Empire was thrown by the invasion of the Tartars, which resulted in the 
downfall of the Ming Line put an end, temporarily, to the further develop- 
ment of the lacquer industry as a fine art; and it was not until the new 
dynasty was firmly established that a revival took place, under their imme- 
diate patronage. This revival seems to have been confined mainly to a few 
methods only of lacquer-working, of which carved lacquer is the chief ; 
and the fashion which seems to have prescribed these limits may have been 
responsible for the fact that Chinese artisans produced no developments 
of other methods of working similar to those which distinguish Japanese 
lacquer artists of the 18th and early 19th centuries. 

It may not be without interest, here, to note the references made to the use 
of lacquer by Father Alvarez Semedo, a Portuguese who spent twenty-two 
years in the country during the first half of the 17th century.: In the 
course of his general survey he says, ‘‘ They use much in their houses 
Charam an excellent vernish and painting of an accurate diligence ”; and 
** In the vessels and utensiles of their house they are both very curious and 
expensive ; using much the aforesaid Charam, a sort of vernish which is 

1 The History of that Great and Renowned Monarchy of China. By F. Alvarez Semedo. 
Now put into English by a Person of quality, London, 1655. 

18 


HISTORY OF LACQUER IN CHINA 


taken from certain trees, proper only to that, and the neighbouring 
Countries ; and in truth it is an excellent thing, as well from the perfection 
of the matter (as may be seen in the workes that come from thence) as for 
the easiness in working it, as well in making new things, as in retrimming 
the old, and reducing them to their former beauty.” In his note on Canton, 
after enumerating various industries, he adds, “‘ as also workes made with 
Charam, an excellent vernish, and with guilding, some whereof are trans- 
ported into Europe.”’ His early impression of the “‘ easiness ”’ of working 
lacquer seems soon to have been modified, for, later, he remarks, ‘* Not- 
withstanding in the generall we do much exceed them in manufactures 
and mechanick Arts, except it be in that same Charam, which is indeed a 
singular Artifice.” He relates that coffins, ‘‘ Funerall Chests,” are ‘‘ made 
with all sorts of exquisite ornament on the outside, as of gold, Charam and 
other gallantries,”” and on the inside, “‘ two weights, which they call Manos 
of Bitumen, and after that, one of Charam.”’ The subjects for the examina- 
tions for degrees are “‘ written in large letters on white tables (tablets) of 
Charam.” At banquets where tables are provided only for from one to 
four persons according to their degree, the tables “‘ have all Frontalls, or a 
peice of linen hanging downe from the edges, but neither Table-cloath 
nor Napkins, using only their Charam, a neate and polished varnish, with 
which their Tables are covered.” The export of lacquer from Canton, 
to India and Persia had already been recorded by the Arab traveller Ibn 
Batuta, who was at that place in 1345 and sets forth his admiration of 
lacquer.? 

Few names have been preserved of Chinese artists in lacquer ; and, with 
the exception of a carved lacquer tray in the Korinin Temple of Daitokuj1 
at Ky6to, which is said to bear the signature of Chang Cheng (Japanese 
Chosei), an artist of the Yuan Dynasty, there appears to be nothing that 
can be directly identified as the work of any of them. It is reproduced 
in Japanese Temples and their Treasures. Other names are mentioned 
in Japanese records, transliterated in that language as follows: Yomo and 
Shumin (Yuan) and Choyan, Senchin, Roho, Kinho, Oycan, Oken and 
Tutsui (Ming). These occur in the Kundai Kwansayu-choki, a catalogue 
of the time of Yoshimasa (1435-1490) which gives an account of the 
importation of various forms of Chinese lacquer-ware especially valued 
in connection with the Tea Ceremony.? These included various forms of 
carved lacquer, engraved, painted (zonset) and that method known as gurt. 

1 Tbn Batoutah, Voyages (trans. Defrémery). 
2 Breuer, A. H., The Influence of China on Lacquer in Japan (Japan Society), 1914. 


1g 


CHINESE LACQUER 


According to F. Hirth, lacquer in relief (Japanese takamakiye or hiramakiye) 
was first seen in China in the case of presents brought by an embassy from 
Japan to the Emperor Hsiian-té (1426-1436) which excited so great 
admiration that after vain attempts had been made to imitate it, Chinese 
lacquerers were sent to Japan to learn the method. This is mentioned in 
Japanese books on the subject and confirmed (according to Dr. Breuer) 
by a note in a Chinese list of painters which relates that the artist Yang 
Hiian was able “‘ to depict, in gold and coloured lacquer, scenes from life, 
flowers and birds in such perfect manner as to make them appear equal 
to paintings on silk.”” One must admit that this comment hardly seems to be 
as conclusive as Dr. Breuer suggested. It is difficult to imagine that 
successful work in relief would be alluded to in such terms, however 
justifiable they might be in the case of flat lacquer. 


THE GREAT CH’ING DYNASTY 
(A.D. 1644 to end of the Empire) 


The second Ch’ing Emperor, K’ang Hsi (A.D. 1662-1723) established, 
in 1680, within the precincts of the palace at Peking, upwards of twenty- 
seven workshops for the cultivation of various artistic handicrafts, in con- 
nection with the Kung Pu, or Board of Works. Among these was one 
devoted to lacquer; and artisans were brought from various parts of the 
Empire for the purpose. To this wise act, the revival of the art of carved 
lacquer is undoubtedly due; but Canton, Tongking, Soochou and Foo- 
chou were also important localities of the industry. The Jesuit Father, 
Louis le Compte,? who arrived in China in 1687 and spent several years 
there, gives a fair general account of lacquer-ware. “‘ Vernish, which 1s 
so common in China, is disperst all over; it takes all Colours, they mix 
Flowers of Gold and Silver with it, they paint Men, Mountains, Palaces, 
Huntings, Birds, Combats and several Figures, that make a bas-relief in 
the work, and renders it extremely pleasing and delightful, so that in this 
point the Chineses are Magnificent for small Charges.” He remarks that 
“for Tables and ordinary chairs, it is sufficient to lay on 2 or 3 layers of 
Vernish which makes it so transparent, that one may discern every Vein of 
the wood through it. Now if you would hide all the matter . . . you must 
do it over and over again, till at length it be nothing but Ice; but so fine 
at first, that it may serve for a Mirror.’’ He mentions the use of gold, 


1 Memoirs and Observations made in a late Journey through the Empire of China, Eng. trans., 
London, 1697. 


20 


fue DORY OF SEACQUER IN CHINA 


silver and colours in decoration ; and gives a recipe for lacquer composition 
—‘ Paper, packthread, lime and some other Substance well beaten with 
which the Vernish incorporateth ”’ (a similar mixture is elsewhere stated 
to consist of paper, fibre of urtica nivea, and egg-shell, beaten up with 
camellia oil and lacquer). Le Comte specifies cabinets, tables and “‘ Vernisht 
Skreens”’; and particularly that “‘ There are very pretty and curious 
Cabinets at Tonkin ; but what is brought to us from Japan, as to that 
matter, are in no way inferiour to the China work.”’ He also has a curious 
suggestion as to the possibility that lacquer is used in making (what seems 
to be from his description) the crackle on celadon porcelain (p. 154). 
Incidentally one may note that the frontispiece of this very interesting 
treatise is a portrait of K’ang Hsi, engraved on copper by M. Vander 
Gucht—“ aged 41 years, Drawn when he was but 32’! 

K’ang Hsi extended his favour to the Jesuit Fathers then in China in 
considerable numbers, and the European influence thus introduced into 
the country is reflected in the arts of the time. So far as concerns lacquer 
this is seen especially in the screens decorated with European figures, and 
notably in that made as a gift to the Emperor Leopold I, with the double- 
eagle in the cresting (Plate 35). This was also the period of the first great 
importation into Europe of Chinese lacquered furniture and, as a result, 
of the establishment in Western countries of the imitation lacquer industry 
and the development generally of the “‘ Chinoiserie’’ fashion. His reign 
corresponds with the best period of Japanese lacquer under the Tokugawa 
régime. 


Ch’ien Lung (A.D. 1736-1796) was a great admirer of carved red lacquer ; 
and, under his auspices, the Imperial factory made large quantities of 
furniture of every kind for his palaces, ranging from great twelvefold 
screens, thrones and chairs of state to small objects for toilet and other 
uses. He also had a number of panels, in this material, made to com- 
memorate his victories and other notable events, and often added poems 
written by or for him to the decoration thereof. An interesting account 
of the industry, in his reign, at Canton, appears in D’Incarville’s ‘‘ Mémoire 
sur la Vernis de la Chine,” published in the Mémoires . . . presentés a 
l’ Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris, 1760; who, however, remarks on the 
inferiority of the Canton lacquer of his day to that of Japan. Under 
Ch’ien Lung carved red lacquer, nevertheless, attained its highest pitch 
of technical excellence, although the breadth of design and imaginative 
qualities of the earlier work now give way to a more stereotyped formalism. 


aI 


CHINESE LACQUER 


After his death the art of lacquer, in common with other Chinese artistic 
handicrafts, rapidly decayed. The Imperial factories, says Dr. Bushell, 
““ were closed one by one, and what remained of the buildings was burned 
down in 1869.” Carved red lacquer has continued to be produced during 
the 19th century ; but it is sadly inferior to the old work. Examples of it, 
at its best, can be seen in the Victoria and Albert Museum, in the form 
of loans from His Majesty the King, of examples presented at one time or 
another by the late rulers of China to those of this country. 


22 


CHAPTER III 


SUBJECTS OF DECORATION 


It is not too much to say that there is no Chinese ornament without a 
_ meaning ; and in a number of cases, traditional patterns can be traced back 
to the very beginning of the arts of the Middle Kingdom. To enter into 
a full examination of this intricate subject is not within the scope of this 
book ; but an indication, so far as possible, of the meaning of the principal 
devices found in various forms of lacquer-ware—as, indeed, in other 
Chinese art-productions—should add to the interest of students of the 
subject. Dr. Perceval Yetts states the position concisely in these words : 
“ From the earliest times the Chinese artist has exerted his skill with the 
intention of producing not merely objects pleasing to the eye, but at the same 
time emblems conveying a definite meaning.” Without at least an effort 
to grasp this fact, no approach can be made toward understanding the art 
of the Far East, even in its humblest branches. 

In lacquer-ware one does not find so great a diversity of subject as in 
porcelain—a fact to be accounted for by the difficulty of the material. But 
the principal categories of symbols are freely used, while of animals 
supernatural and natural, the dragon, phcenix, bat and crane are most often 
in evidence. Clouds, the full moon, mountains, rocks and trees lend 
themselves well to effective treatment in lacquer of every variety, and are of 
frequent occurrence ; while the Chinese love of Nature is seen to advantage 
in a beautiful and most skilful arrangement of the favourite flowers— 
whether as the chief or the subordinate elements in a decorative composi- 
tion. Buddhist and Taoist emblems are often employed indiscriminately ; 
even when representations occur of the chief personages of one or other 
of those cults. Of the latter, Shou Lao, a deification of Lao Tze, the 
founder of the Taoist philosophy, is more often found with sceptre (jut) and 
stag or crane; but the Eight Taoist Immortals, the Sages of the Bamboo 
Grove and those of the Wine Cup are also to be seen. Children at their 
games supply a pleasing theme, by way of variety; and the pavilioned 
gardens offer a nice contrast to the wild and rugged landscapes in which 
some of the personages are placed. The following are the most important of 
the subjects used purely as ornaments. 

The ErcHt BuppHIsT EmBLEems of Happy Aucury (Pa chi-hsiang) are 
taken mainly from the numerous objects supposed to have figured on the 
sole of Buddha’s Foot (Yetts). They are as follows: the Wheel of the 
Law (Lun), in flames, heralding the coming of a Chakravarti or Universal 

1 Symbolism in Chinese Art (China Society publication), 1912. 


23 


CHINESE LACQUER 


Monarch ; the Conch-shell (Lo) used at religious ceremonies, an attribute 
of royalty ; the State Umbrella (San), a symbol of high rank ; the Canopy 
(Kai) also symbolic of royalty; the Sacred Lotus (Hua); the Vase of 
relics (P’ing) ; the Pair of Fish (Yu), emblems of marriage and fertility ; 
and the Endless Knot, or Entrails (Chang), an emblem of longevity which 
Dr. Yetts suggests is derived from the mystic sign of Vishnu. 

The E1rcut Tricrams (Pa kua) begin with three unbroken lines represent- 
ing heaven and end with three broken lines representing earth: the inter- 
mediate diagrams being combinations of the broken and unbroken lines 
representing vapour, fire, thunder, wind, water and mountains. They are 
often shown in conjunction with the sign of the Creative Principle yin 
(negative) and yang (positive)—a circle divided by a spiral line, the former 
black with a white dot, signifying darkness, earth, femininity, etc. ; and 
the latter, white with a black dot, denoting light, heaven, masculinity, etc. 


The ErcHt Mustcat INSTRUMENTS (Pa Yin). 


Ch’ing. Sounding Stone, in form of a mason’s square and suspended 
to be struck with ahammer. A homonym of Ch’ing “ Good Fortune.” 

Chung. A metal bell also to be struck with a mallet. 

Chil attc, 

Ti. Bamboo flute. 

Chu. Box of wood with metal hammer. 

Ku. Drum covered with skin. 

Shéng. Reed organ, a mouth instrument with seventeen reed pipes of 
varying length and gourd wind-chamber. 

Hstian. Icarina. Cone-shaped instrument of clay pierced with six 
holes. 


The TWELVE ORNAMENTS of Robes (Shih-érh Chang). 


1. Jih. The Sun, with a three-legged cock. 

2. Yueh. The Moon, with the hare, under a cassia-tree, pounding the 
Elixir of Life. 

3. Hsing Chén. The Stars, a triangle of three circles, the upper sides 
joined with lines. 

4. Shan. Mountains. 

5- Lung. A pair of five-clawed dragons. 

6. Hua Chung. The “ variegated ’’ animal—a pheasant—the “‘ flowery 
fowl.” 


24 


SUBJECTS OF DECORATION 


7. Tsung Yi. Temple vessels—a pair of cups, one with a tiger and the 
other with a monkey—noted for filial piety. 
8. Ts’ao. Aquatic grass. 
9g. Huo. Fire. 
10. Fén Mi. Grains of Rice. 
11. Fu. An axe. 
12. Fu. The “ symbol of distinction,” two simple frets, back to back : 
known later as the brocade pattern. 


The Ercut Taoist Immorrats and their attributes (pa-hsien). 


Chung Li-chiian, carrying a fan with which he revives the souls of the 
dead, or a branch of peach-tree. He rides upon an ox. 

Li Tung-pin, with magic sword. 

Li Tieh-kuai, a beggar with magic pilgrim’s iron crutch and gourd. 

Ts’ao-Kuo-chiu, in official robes with hat and bamboo castanets. 

Lan Ts’ai-ho carrying a spade and flower basket (perhaps a woman). 

Chang Kuo, seated backwards on a mule with bamboo tube and two 
rods. 

Han Hsiang-tzu, a young man with flute. 

Ho Hsien-ku, a maid, in leaf robe with lotus-flower. 


The latter group are all illustrated on a brocade in the Victoria and 
Albert Museum and fully described by Dr. Bushell in the text of his 
monumental work on the Walters’ Collection of Oriental Ceramic Art 
(p. 579). : 

The E1cut Precious Tuincs (pa pao) of the Taoists. 

The Jewel (Chu), Cash (ch’ien), Lozenge (fang-shéng) symbolical of 
victory, Pair of Books (shu), Painting (hua), Musical Stone (ch’ing), Pair of 
Rhinoceros-horn Cups (chuch) and Artemisia Leaf (ai-yeh). 

The Four Liperat Arts, of Writing, Painting, Music and Chess, are 
represented by their apparatus, such as a group of books, brushes or 
paintings, a musical instrument, generally the lute, and a board for chess 
or wei chi, the Chinese equivalent of the Japanese game go. 

Among other favourite devices are all or some of the varied collection of 
vases, bronze utensils, etc., known as the ‘‘ Hundred Antiques” (Po ku), 
a fine example of which is to be found in the border of one of the great 
** Coromandel ’’ screens at South Kensington (No. 130-1885), of which 
four panels are reproduced herein (Plate 53). 


25 


CHINESE LACQUER 


ANIMALS 


The Four SUPERNATURAL ANIMALS (ssu ling) of the Chinese are :— 


The Dracon (Lung) is represented generally with bearded, frowning 
head, straight horns, a scaly serpentine body, four legs, the feet armed with 
strong claws, bristling dorsal spines and emitting flames and smoke. The 
claws were originally three on each foot ; but afterwards the number was 
increased to four and five ; the use of the latter being strictly reserved for 
Imperial use under the Ming and Ch’ing Dynasties. A number of varieties 
of dragon are described by Dr. Bushell!. The Buddhist dragon of the 
law is represented as grasping the jewel of the faith in one of its outstretched 
paws. Celestial dragons chase the mystic jewels which grant every wish. 
The sea-dragon appears coiled in the depths of the sea. The dragon is 
(says Dr. Bushell) peculiarly symbolical of all that pertains to the Son of 
Heaven, the Emperor’s throne being styled the dragon-seat, and his face 
as the dragon-countenance; his banner is the dragon-flag, and after his 
death he is borne aloft by dragons to the regions of the blessed. 

The PHenix (Féng-huang)—feng being the name of the male and huang 
that of the female; the compound being the generic name of the bird, 
which, Dr. Bushell notes, has many analogies with the phcenix of the 
Greeks. It is immortal, dwells in the highest regions of the air, and only 
appears as an omen of the advent of virtuous rulers or an emblem of an 
auspicious reign. It once ranked even above the dragon, but later became 
the special emblem of the empress. In the reign of Ch’ien Lung, the 
banners borne before the Empress’s chariot of ceremony displayed both 
the dragon and the pheenix. It is usually represented with the beak of a 
swallow, the head of a pheasant, long neck, gorgeous plumage and a flowing 
tail adorned with long separate plumes from three to seven in number. 
The inseparable féng-huang symbolises conjugal love. It is generally seen 
flying in the midst of clouds and lightning or associated with the blossoming 
tree-peony. Plate 2 affords an especially fine example of the use of the 
combined dragon and phcenix in ornament. 

The TorToIsE (Kuei) lives for five thousand years and after a certain age 
“ bears the sign of its patriarchal dignity in the shape of a hairy tail.” “A 
tortoise collaborated with the dragon-horse in revealing the Eight Trigrams 
to Fu Hsi; and the shells of the tortoise were anciently employed as one of 
the chief elements in the art of divination ” (Yetts). The tortoise is used 
as an emblem of strength and also of longevity. In Hindu mythology it 

1 Oriental Ceramic Art (Walters’ Collection), 1896, text, p. 592. 


26 


SUBJECTS OF DECORATION 


supports the elephant which upholds the universe. In China i) carries 
on its back P’éng Lai Shan, the island dwelling of the immortals. 

The Unicorn (Ch’i-lin) is again an example of the combination of the 
male (ch’t) and female (lin) of the mythical species. It has the body of a 
deer, with slender legs, divided hoofs, the head of a dragon, tail of a lion 
and its shoulders adorned with flames. It only appears as a good omen ; 
and is said to live for a thousand years, to be the noblest of all animals and 
the emblem of perfect good—to tread so lightly as to leave no footprints 
and so carefully as to harm no living creature. 

With the foregoing group the tiger (hu) is often associated, making a 
group of the “ Five Ling ’’—It signifies military prowess. 

To De Quincey, in the agony of his dreams, a Chinaman seemed “ an 
antediluvian man renewed.’ That nightmare does not oppress a sane 
and well-balanced European intellect, but there is something in the hint. 
For it is surely not too far-fetched to see in these ancient forms a tradition 
which may have been derived from the monstrous reptiles and other 
beasts of prehistoric times; and recent geological research in China 
would appear to lend some colour to the speculation. 

The supernatural animals have a further significance of importance. One 
presides over each of the Four Quadrants of the vault of Heaven, the Azure 
Dragon ruling the East, the Vermilion Bird (phcenix) the South, the White 
Tiger the West and the Black Warrior, the Tortoise, the North. In 
harmony with the daily movement of the sun, they also represent the Four 
Seasons, beginning with Spring (the Dragon). Some moral idea of this 
sort underlies the advice of the Ming writer on lacquer, that decoration 
should conform to the principles of Nature. Plate 53 supplies a fine illustra- 
tion of a dragon-headed horse careering over the waves of an ancient sea. 

The quadrant is further divided into a Zodiac of Twelve Animals—the 
Twelve Earthy Branches, viz.:—the dragon, hare, tiger, fox, rat, boar, 
cock, monkey, goat, horse and snake; and again into twenty-eight each 
with an animal associated with one of the ancient constellations. Dr. Yetts 
reproduces! a mirror of the Tang period, in which the whole system is very 
legibly set out, in combination with the Eight Trigrams. 

The Stac (lu) is an emblem of long life. At the age of 1000 years it 
becomes blue, and black at 2000 years. 

The Lion (shih-tzu) is the defender of the law and protector of Buddhist 
sacred buildings. The male is represented with a ball in its paw ; the female 
with a puppy. This beast is of Indo-Buddhistic origin. 

1 Symbolism in Chinese Art, Fig. XIII. 


27 


CHINESE LACQUER 


The ELEPHANT, the Horse and the Hare are the only animals that have 
obtained admission to Nirvana on their own merit and are sometimes 
shown as crossing the dark sea that leads thereto. The elephant bears on 
his back the sacred jewels, as in the centre compartment of the Throne of 
Ch’ien Lung (Frontispiece). The horse may carry sacred books ; and the 
hare is shown living in the moon, in which a dwelling of honour was pro- 
vided for it as a reward for the proffered sacrifice of its body to feed the 
starving Buddha. There it sits compounding the Elixir of Life with a 
pestle and mortar; sometimes in company with the toad into which 
Ch’ang-ngo was changed after she had stolen the precious drug from her 
husband. 

The CRANE (hsien hao) or StorK is emblematic of long life and occurs 
frequently in this sense. The Bat (pien-fu) is still more common in lacquer- 
ware especially. It signifies happiness, the character fu (bat) being a 
homonym of fu (happiness). Five bats surrounding the character Shou 
(Long Life) would be read as the Five Blessings, Happiness, Wealth, 
Peace, Virtue and Longevity. The BuTTERFLY (hu t’ieh) stands for length 
of days ; and the Fisu (yii) for abundance, by a similar process. 

Such representative symbols as the above—with others—are frequently 
found in combinations of which one or two examples have already been 
given. Dr. Bushell! and Dr. Yetts? supply a number of examples of this 
kind of rebus. Thus, a bat, peach and two “cash” united by a fillet, 
reads “ Happiness and Longevity both complete ’’; and the process can 
be applied to almost every combination of symbolic ornament that is 
likely to be found. 


TREES AND FLOWERS 


PEACH (t’ao). Among the trees, the peach, in Taoist symbolism, occupies 
the first place. The peach-tree of the genii, whose fruit confers immortality, 
grows on the borders of the Lake of Gems in the domain of the goddess Si 
Wang Mu, who is represented in both Chinese and Japanese Art, with the 
mystic fruit. The peach-tree is also a symbol of happy marriage, following 
a well-known Ode by the Emperor Shih Huang Ti (B.c. 246-209). 

PINE (sung), BAMBoo (chu), PRuNus (plum, mei). These three are generally 
grouped as symbols of long life; the Pine and Bamboo because they are 
evergreen and flourish even in winter, and the Prunus because, in extreme 
old age, it still throws out flowering twigs. 


1 Oriental Ceramic Art. 2 Symbolism in Chinese Art. 


28 


SUBJECTS OF DECORATION 


Funcus (ling chih). The sacred branching fungus (Polyporus lucidus) 
signifies long life ; but was formerly one of the emblems of Good Luck. 

CoRAL 1s also symbolical of long life. 

TREE PEONY (mutan-hua). Spring—symbol of wealth. 

Lotus (hé-hua). Summer—the sacred flower of Buddhism—the emblem 
of purity—the rain-drops sparkling on its leaves signify enlightenment. 

CHRYSANTHEMUM (chi-hua). Autumn—symbolical of long duration. 

Prunus or Wild Plum (mei-hua). Winter—the symbol of beauty. This 
is the flower commonly but erroneously termed the hawthorn. . 

The above constitute the Flowers of the Four Seasons (ssw chi hua). 

The flowers of the Twelve Months as given in a screen of ‘‘ Coromandel”’ 
lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum (No. 163-1889) are as 
follows :— 


FLOWERS OF THE TWELVE MONTHS. 


January. Prunus: Mei hua. 
February. Peach: T’ao hua. 
March. Tree Peony: Mu tan. 
April. Cherry: Ying t’oa. 

May. Magnolia: Yii lan. 

June. Pomegranate: Shih liu. 
July. Lotus: Lien hua. 

August. Pear: Hai t’ang. 
September. Mallow: Ch’in k’uei. 
October. Chrysanthemum: Chii hua. 
November. Gardenia: Chih hua. 
December. Poppy: Ying su. 


These vary in different provinces, but the above may be taken as a 
standard series. 

GRAPE-VINE (pu-t’ao) was introduced into China by Chang Ch’ien who 
was sent on a mission to the Indo-Scyths on the Oxus river in B.c. 139, 
by one of the Han Emperors. He reached his destination and finally 
returned to China after being twice captured, bringing much information 
both about trade and Buddhism. The Chinese name given above is derived 
from the Greek GBorpvs ; and the vine with squirrels, as in Plate 14, is 
frequently found on ancient Chinese mirrors treated in a style directly 
suggestive of Greek ornament. 

Of the above, in addition to those of which the significance has already 


29 


GHINESE LACQUER 


been mentioned, the peach is also emblematic of spring and is of the first 
importance as being the fruit of the Tree of Life of the Taoist Paradise, 
which ripens only once in 3000 years and confers immortality on mortals. 
The Cuerry or Cherry Apple blossom in combination with the magnolia 
and tree peony forms the rebus (may you dwell in) jade halls (and enjoy) 
wealth and honours (Yetts) ; and the POMEGRANATE expresses fertility— 
a numerous family. The Narcissus (shui-hsien-hua) is sometimes 
emblematic of winter, and is a good omen if in bloom at the New Year. 
Next in rank to the peach, the Taoists place the SAcRED Funcus (ling chih) 
and the grouped Pine (sung), Bamboo (Chu) and Prunus (mei) all emblem- 
atic of long life; the fungus on account of its durability, the evergreen, 
pine and bamboo, and the prunus because it blossoms from leafless 
branches even in extreme old age. The latter group is also significant of 
long-enduring friendship. Another series of flowers of the Four Seasons 
includes the orchid, gardenia, pomegranate and prunus. Another group 
is composed of the peach, pomegranate and Buddha-finger CiTRON— 
the Three Fruits (san kuo) symbolical of the Three Abundances (san to)— 
Abundance of Years, of Sons, and of Happiness. 


PATTERNS 


Of the characteristic patterns most frequently found on lacquer-ware, two 
call for special mention. The fret known as the MEANDER or key-pattern is 
seen in various forms, and is generally used as borders. It is of great 
antiquity and is derived from archaic pictographs representing clouds and 
thunder—hence the Chinese name “cloud and thunder pattern,’’ or, 
simply “‘ thunder pattern.’’ Dr. Yetts quotes a Chinese writer’s inter- 
pretation of the symbolism of this pattern used as a diaper on a bronze 
cauldron of the Chou period—" the lozenge-shaped spaces are occupied by 
the ‘ cloud and thunder ’ pattern surrounding a small nipple in the centre. 
For the nipple nourishes mankind, while clouds and thunder fertilise 
growing things. The k’uei dragon, moreover, exerts a restraining influence 
against the sin of greed. Here we have but a single vessel, yet all the 
eternal principles are there complete! How excellent was the philosophy 
of the ancients!’’ One could hardly select a better example of the light 
in which ornament appears to the Chinese philosopher. 

The other symbol, very often used as a diaper, particularly on carved 
lacquer, is the SVASTIKA, significant of infinity—thus in conjunction with the 
character shou it would be read as “‘ a myriad ages.’’ The svastika has, of 


30 


SUBJECTS OF DECORATION 


course, a distribution in the history of ornament extending far beyond its 
use in China. 

The character shou (longevity) frequently appears as an ornament of good 
omen, often in circular form as in Plate 11. Ch’un (spring) is used in the 
same manner, good examples appearing in the “ Circular Box for a Cere- 
monial Gift ’’ (Plate 29) and in the incised “‘ Plaque ”’ (Plate 47); both 
these are further adorned with a representation of Shou Lao in the centre 
of the character. The inscription Ta Chi (great good luck) also occurs 
occasionally on lacquer-ware as a decorative feature. 


31 


CHAPTER IV 


DESCRIPTIONS OR THE 
ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plates r and 2.— IMPERIAL TABLE FOR A MARRIAGE CEREMONY 


The art of the lacquerer seems to have found its highest expression in the 
sumptuous furniture made for Imperial use ; and of work of this quality 
we are able to illustrate several typical examples. The earliest in date is a 
table of unusual shape and magnificence of ornament. The whole of its 
surface is decorated with deep vermilion lacquer, cut through on its upper 
surface to the depth of rather more than one-eighth of an inch so as to 
expose the buff ground and form a relief for the pattern—a quite ex- 
ceptional depth. The ornament on the sides and legs is less deep, but still 
sufficiently so to be effective. It is interesting to note also, how it is 
arranged to protect itself against ordinary wear and tear. Apart from the 
cracks caused by the shrinkage of age, the lacquer is generally in good 
condition. Some few damages have been sustained, as was inevitable in a 
life of perhaps more than three centuries—but these cannot be regarded as 
detracting from the splendour of this fine piece of furniture as it exists 
to-day. 

The upper surface is decorated with a twelve-lobed compartment within 
a border corresponding to the shape of the table. The central feature 
consists of a superbly designed Imperial Dragon, ascendant, on the right 
of a sacred Lotus of characteristic Buddhistic form, and balanced on the 
left by a magnificent seven-tailed pheonix swooping downwards. The 
whole of the remaining space within the compartment is filled with lotus 
flowers in bud, full bloom, and with seed and foliage, distributed with 
extreme skill and ingenuity. Each of the outer angles within the border 
contains a six-tailed phcenix of simpler form, arranged with a filling of 
flowers and foliage, among which one recognises the chrysanthemum, 
rose, peony and magnolia. The border has, alternately, four-toed dragons 
and five-tailed pheenixes, all facing to the left, and on a rich ground of lotus 
flowers and foliage. The table has three drawers, each running through its 
entire breadth. The front panels of the drawers again have each a four- 
toed dragon and a five-tailed phcenix and lotus plants. Below the drawers 
is a panelled support with four panels (two large and two small) on the 
long side, and three panels of equal size on the other, with floral decora- 
tion; while the lower frame has a reversing strap-work ornament with 
alternating flowers. The top of the table and the lower frame are 


32 


DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


supported with open-work brackets also richly carved with similar 
designs. 

The legs are rather remarkable. They rake slightly outwards, not only 
giving an appearance of stability, but, in fact, securing it. In section, the 
outer half is rounded, while the inner has straight sides meeting at an angle 
—the section of the whole being kite-shaped. They are decorated with 
panels of flowers protected with plain perpendicular ribs to take the wear. 

The significance of the chief motive of decoration cannot be overlooked. 
The five-toed Dragon (lung) as here represented is the peculiar symbol 
of the Emperor as is the phcenix (feng-huang) of the Empress. This implies, 
without any room for doubt, that the table was made for their personal use, 
and the fact that these emblems, with the lotus (signifying purity and per- 
fection), constitute almost the whole of the ornament, is definite evidence 
that it was a piece of quite exceptional importance in the furniture of the 
Palace. The design of the combined Imperial Dragon and pheenix sug- 
gests that the table was made for use in connection with an Imperial marriage 
ceremony. A similar design is found on a piece of embroidered satin in 
the Victoria and Albert Museum. The attribution of it to the Ming period 
must be taken as the expression of a personal opinion based on comparison 
with other accepted examples, and particularly in regard to the quality 
of the lacquer and treatment of the design. I am inclined to place it in the 
Wan Li period (A.D. 1573-1619). 

Height, 2 feet 62 inches ; table top, 2 feet 9} inches by 3 feet 11 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (Wan L1) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


Plate 3.—TABLE SCREEN IN CARVED RED LACQUER 


Decorated with a pavilion of three apartments, in the central one of which 
is an old man, seated; and in each of those at the sides, an attendant 
preparing for a meal. Two visitors with attendants are approaching. The 
pavilion is in a garden on a terrace, with flowers in vases and various plants, 
pine and other trees, flying cranes, etc. Below is a band of lotus flowers 
and scrolls, The screen is mounted in a finely carved stand of hard wood 
with bats, feng-headed scrolls and the character shou. On either side are 
small enamel plaques. On the back of the screen is a realistically carved 
spray of chrysanthemums in high relief. 

Height, 23 inches ; width, 16 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (Hsiian Te, dated) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


33 D 


CHINESE LACQUER 


Plate 4.—Box IN Two TIERS, WITH TRAY 


The cover is decorated with a scene representing a guest, followed by his 
attendant bearing an umbrella, being conducted by an old man to the 
entrance of a two-storey pavilion on a terrace overhung with trees on a 
rocky eminence. On the terrace, he is awaited by two ladies, one with a 
fan; a third is seated in a swing. In the upper storey of the pavilion are 
three female musicians. On the sides are a river with boats of various 
kinds and islands on which are other buildings; on one bank, a bridge 
with two arches, and on the other, a battlemented wall with bastion. 

Carved in red lacquer of deep, rich colour and with great skill. The 
tray, interior and base, are lacquered black. 

Height, 64 inches ; width, 104 inches ; depth, 6 inches. 


Ming Dynasty (probably Wan Li) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 5.—SALVER 


A salver of unusual size, circular, with fluted border and gilt metal rim. 
In the centre is an elaborate conventional peach-blossom, with foliage, 
surrounded with eight bats and eight sprays of various flowers, in relief on a 
diapered ground. Around this is a border of triangular arabesque orna- 
ments from which springs the fluted rim, each compartment filled with 
a spray of chrysanthemum. In carved red lacquer, the base lacquered 
black. This salver affords one of several instances where lacquer-ware 
may well be compared with cloisonné enamel, for general treatment. For 
instance, the Ming “ Palace Salver,’’ No. 4785-1858 in the Victoria and 
Albert Museum, is similar in form to the example now illustrated. | 

Height, 3 inches ; diameter, 16 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (late) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 6.—CrrcuLAR BowL AND COVER 


A bowl of unusual character decorated with four bands of foliage and 
flowers, the upper of which (on the cover) has also the Eight Emblems of 
Happy Augury (pa chi-hsiang). In the centre of the latter and forming 
the top of the cover is a scene representing Shou Lao, holding a sceptre 
terminating in a sacred jewel, seated under a spreading tree and with four 
attendant disciples seated on either side. In front of him is a dancing 
stork, his familiar bird. The decoration is carried out in carved brown 
lacquer, generally on a plain buff lacquer ground. The diaper forming 
the groundwork of the central design is in a rich reddish-brown lacquer, 


34 


Peo orRiP TIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS 


and this composition is enclosed within a circle of gold lacquer. The 
interior and base are lacquered brown. The mingling of the Taoist sub- 
ject with Buddhist emblems is an example of the open mind with which 
these symbols of different schools of philosophy were regarded by the 
Chinese ; and the colour scheme is rare and effective. 
Height, 8 inches ; diameter, 10 inches. 
Ming Dynasty (late) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 7,—AN OCTAGONAL CovERED BowL, ON FooT 


The centre panel forming the top of the cover has a Chinese personage, 
probably Shou Lao, seated in a cave, with his stag and an attendant. The 
upper part of the cover is divided into eight compartments, each with 
children playing various games. Below are two narrow borders of tree- 
peony blossoms, forming the upper and lower rims of the bowl and cover ; 
and beneath are eight sprays of flowers and foliage on a diaper ground. The 
foot has a chrysanthemum flower and leaves in each compartment. The 
design is in boldly carved red lacquer with softened outlines and of a fine 
deep colour, the lower part on a ground of yellowish-buff. The interior 
and base are lacquered black. 

Height, 104 inches ; diameter, 104 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (Wan Li) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 7,—Box FoR INCENSE 


This box is carved out of a mass of solid brown lacquer, without sub- 
structure of wood or other material. The subject of the somewhat primitive 
decoration appears to be two priests, face to face, between them being a (¢) 
peach. This is on a boldly cut diaper which also appears, in panels, on the 
sides. Boxes of this class are illustrated in Dr. Breuer’s paper, read before 
the Japan Society (Vol. XII). The date must be uncertain, but we are 
inclined to place it not later than the beginning of the 16th century. 

Height, 15 inches ; 12 inches, square. 

Ming Dynasty (¢ Chéng Té) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 8.—Box FOR AN IMPERIAL GIFT 


The decoration of this important example of Ming work is carved in black 
on a ground of red diapers of three patterns, the svastika and two varieties 
of florets. The design of the cover is in three compartments, the centre 


35 


CHINESE LACQUER 


of which, in the opinion of Dr. Bushell, represents a visit of an Emperor to 
a two-storied pavilion, on the veranda of which two officials wait to receive 
him. The Emperor is in a chariot drawn by two horses, and attended by 
fan-bearers and other retinue. He is preceded by state umbrella-bearers 
—who are accompanied by a deer—men bearing ducks in dishes, hal- 
berdiers, etc. Above, is an aged pine-tree, the full moon and clouds, 
among which a phenix hovers. The upper panel shows a sage seated at 
the entrance to a house, receiving a scholar with two attendants bearing 
bundles of rolled pictures; the lower has an official shooting at a screen 
with a bow, the arrow having transfixed the eye of a stork in the design. 
His efforts are watched by two other men of his rank ; and, from within a 
pavilion, by two women. Dr. Bushell considers these panels to be sym- 
bolical, respectively, of the arts of Peace and War. The sides have a repeat- 
ing pattern of peony flowers and birds of paradise. The interior is, 
unusually, lacquered red ; and the box bound with silver mounts. 
Height, 44 inches ; length, 25 inches; width, 6? inches. 

Ming Dynasty (Wan Li) 

Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 8.—TRAY 


A shallow tray with boldly carved design of tree-peony growing from 
rocks, and a butterfly, on a ground of horizontal lines, broken at intervals ; 
within a border of aster-blossoms and leaves. In red lacquer of deep, rich 
colour, the base black. 

Height, 1 inch; length, 13% inches; width, 54 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (late) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plates 9, 10.—A SET OF ALTAR FURNITURE (wu kung) 


This rare set of Altar Furniture, the only complete series in carved 
lacquer which has yet been noted, was obtained in Peking by the late Rt. 
Hon. Sir Claude M. Macdonald, P.C., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.C.B., and 
was presented to the Victoria and Albert Museum by Lady Macdonald 
as a memorial to that distinguished diplomatist. It consists of an Incense 
Burner, a pair of Flower Vases and a pair of Pricket Candlesticks, The 
Incense Burner (hsiang-lu) is rectangular in section with two projecting 
swan-neck handles ; its body rests on four columns decorated with cloud 
pattern and with lion-mask capitals, rising from a base with diaper pattern, 
two bands of thunder-pattern and on shaped feet with richly carved foliage. 


36 





PesCcRIPTIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS 


On the body and on its domed cover, are the Eight Buddhist Emblems of 
Happy Augury amid luxuriant scrolls, with borders of thunder-pattern 
and arabesques. The handles are supported with discs bearing the 
character shou (long life); and the whole is surmounted with a finial in 
mutton-fat jade beautifully carved in open work with flowers and birds. 
The Flower Vases are square in section, on bases similar to that of the 
Incense Burner, and with boldly projecting knops and wide mouths. The 
knops are decorated with foliated scrolls, in the centre being a rebus con- 
sisting of a bat and a musical stone, signifying happiness and good fortune. 
Above and below are bold leaf-shaped ornaments, with thunder-pattern 
and scrolls. The Pricket Candlesticks are on similar bases, on which rise 
inverted domes with the character, long life, bats, lotus blossoms, thunder- 
pattern, etc. The wide drip-pan and other details are decorated with 
floral scrolls and foliage. The vases and candlesticks have engraved brass 
mounts. The whole is richly carved in deep red, relieved with green and 
orange-vermilion. 

Incense Burner : height, 18 inches ; width, 134 inches; depth, 6 inches. 

Vases ; height, 15 inches by 6 inches square. 

Candlesticks : height, 18} inches by 5? inches square. 


Ming Dynasty (late) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 11.—CIRCULAR PLAQUE, FRAMED FOR A TABLE SCREEN 


The decoration of this plaque consists mainly of a bold rendering of the 
character shou (long life) filled in with flying cranes and phcenixes (feng) 
alternately with tails of four feathers and floriated scrolls, and cloud- 
pattern on a curious diaper of concentric circles. The rest of the circle has, 
outside the character, a varied collection of emblems, including the double 
coin, coral, painting and sacred jewel, with cloud-patterns and flowers on a 
svastika diaper ground ; the whole enclosed within a border of conventional 
blossoms. The frame is of hard wood, with inner border of thunder- 
pattern, the angles incised with scrolls and inlaid with green; the outer 
border with floral scrolls in relief. On the reverse is an engraved poem 
entitled “‘ Eulogy on the Stars of Wealth, Prosperity and Longevity, com- 
posed by the Emperor”; and consisting of passages from the Book of 
Odes, the Book of Changes, and the Book of History, strung together so 
as to make a semblance of continuity and signed “ Calligraphed by the 
Minister, Lu Fei-ch’ih.” This gives the clue to the general symbolism of 


37 


CHINESE LACQUER 


the whole composition ; and, in conjunction with the conspicuous use of 
the pheenix in the design, suggests that the screen was made for the use 
of an Empress. The plaque is carved in lacquer of three layers, mainly red, 
and relieved with black and yellow. 


ERIE Sas US Ming Dynasty (about Chia Ching) 


Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 12,—CIRCULAR COVERED Box FOR CEREMONIAL GIFT 


One of a pair of covered boxes of a form often occurring in lacquer-ware 
and occasionally in enamels, which have often been termed rice-bowls, but 
were more probably intended for gifts of fruit or cake on auspicious 
occasions. The decoration of the cover consists of a closely massed 
design of peony blossoms and foliage around the character shou and 
within a border of thunder-pattern. Below this is a border of highly 
conventionalised bats, with bands of flowers and foliage. The interior is 
of gold lacquer. 

Height, 74 inches ; diameter, 18 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 12.—Box FOR SWEETMEATS, BAT-SHAPED 


This box would probably have been made to enclose a gift of sweetmeats 
on some ceremonial occasion. In form it represents a bat, of which the 
highly conventionalised details appear only on the cover, with a central 
ornament consisting of the character shou in combination with the svastika, 
a rebus, with the bat, signifying ten thousand years of happiness. The 
perpendicular sides are decorated with elaborate designs of thunder- 
pattern embodying the svastika form; and the whole of the ground is 
diapered. In carved red lacquer, the interior and base black. 

Height, 24 inches ; width, 9? inches ; depth, 44 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 13.—Box AND COVER, PEACH-SHAPED 

A box of this unusual magnificence must have been made for some very 
exceptional occasion. The design carries out the suggestion of the form ; 
and consists of a peach-tree, bearing flowers and fruit, springing from a 
rock, with, also, a pair of bats. The stem of the tree is of carved wood ; 

38 


Pooh rl ONS Orel HE TLLUSTRATIONS 


and flowers, fruit and foliage are executed in green and yellow jade, lapis 
lazuli, turquoise, amethystine quartz and carved red lacquer, on a diapered 
ground of red lacquer. The interior is also of a character rarely seen in 
work of this class, being sumptuously adorned with gold lacquer, having 
bats, fishes and various other auspicious emblems in low relief—a rare 
example of Chinese gold lacquer of high quality. The peach in combina- 
tion with the bats forms a rebus symbolical of long life and happiness for 
the recipient of the gift enclosed within—but, as in the case of Japanese 
ceremonial presentations, the donor would expect the box itself to be re- 
turned to him, 
Height, 7 inches ; width, 15 inches ; depth, 14} inches. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 14.—TABLE WITH GRAPE-VINE PATTERN 


This table, although it cannot claim to have been actually made for 
Imperial use, so far as is suggested by its ornament, is yet of very high 
quality and quite exceptional in design, which consists solely of an all- 
Over pattern, most ingeniously and skilfully distributed—of grape vines 
amid which squirrels are playing. The theme forms a refreshing contrast 
to the more formal decorative motives generally used by the designers of 
Chinese red lacquer. The subject alludes to a well-known Chinese poem. 
The technique of the lacquer is unusual, for instead of being cut sharply 
it has rather the effect of having been modelled, all sharp edges and pro- 
jections being cleverly eliminated, with great advantage to the practical use 
of the table. The ornament is, moreover, further protected with plain ribs 
on the outer rims. In the treatment of the vine, one cannot help seeing an 
echo of ornament on ancient Roman silver. The motive occurs frequently 
on ancient mirrors and probably represents one of the earliest effects of 
foreign influence in Chinese decorative art—in this case the source— 
Greek—being that also which inspired the Roman silversmiths. Dr. F. 
Hirth illustrated several of these mirrors in Fremde Einfliisse in der Chinesis- 
chen Kunst (1896) of which Figs. 12 and 14 are specially worth considering 
in this connection. 

The legs are of interesting and characteristic form, breaking into scrolls 
reminiscent of the sacred fungus, with which the jui (sceptres) are also 
associated. 

The table is in remarkably good condition considering its age. The colour 
is admirable and the construction unimpared. Although in no way 


39 


CHINESE LACQUER 


definitely suggesting European influence, it is far more in accordance with 
Western taste than the usual forms of Chinese lacquer—in fact the design, 
with very little more alteration than the necessary transposition into a 
repeating pattern, would be excellent in a wall paper or textile fabric. 
Height, width and length, 2 feet 94 inches. 
) Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
Plate 15.—GARDEN BOX-SEAT 
A good example of the furniture of a Chinese formal garden is supplied 
by this interesting object. It is square in section, with curved sides, on 
each of which is the boldly designed lion-headed dragon, the mask forming 
the centre. Those on two of the sides are in bold relief. The circular 
compartments containing these, are on a ground of floral diaper pattern 
within richly shaped arabesque borders enclosing floral scrolls based on 
the lotus and prunus blossoms amid elaborate foliage. Above and below 
are borders of “ nipples,” thunder-pattern and scrolls. The seat is diapered 
with svastika pattern within a border of thunder-fret. The decoration is 
principally in carved red and green on buff lacquer, the band of nipples 
being in red on incised buff. 
Height, 18 inches ; in section, 154 inches square. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


Plate 16.—FLOWER-VASE FOR CEREMONIAL USE 


This vase is of special interest to students of ornament inasmuch as its 
decoration is mainly based on themes such as are found on bronzes of the 
T’ang period, and having, also, a curious flavour of Pacific and Central 
American patterns. The body of the vase is divided into oblong panels, 
each inclosing two or three compositions, the chief element being a 
double-ended scroll, the terminals of which suggest the heads of grotesque 
animals. Scrolls of this sort, one may remark, incidentally and without 
straining for extreme parallels, are found in Anglo-Saxon manuscripts 
contemporary with T’ang. They are simply due, in all probability, to a 
primitive appreciation of the interest added to decoration by a suggestion 
of animal life. Within these elements are other grotesque birds and scrolls 
of varied character, bordered with similar ornaments and enclosed with 
thunder-pattern. Prominent among the ornaments on the base and neck 
is the “‘ recumbent silk worm ” theme ; while the upper part of the neck is 
patterned with boldly drawn, alternating, triangular compartments of 


40 - 


DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


thunder-frets divided by a border of bosses of incurved scrolls. The vase 
is of carved lacquer, chiefly red; the neck being on a diapered ground of 
olive-green and the base of plain dark green lacquer on buff. The stand, 
of hard wood, is contemporary and finely carved in similar style. The 
mouth is fitted with a brass mount, engraved with a pattern of prunus- 
blossoms on ice and pierced for five sprays of flowers. From the Summer 
Palace, Peking. 


Height, 284 inches ; width, 163 inches. Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 


Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


Plate 17.—VASE FROM THE SUMMER PALACE 


This vase, one of a pair in the Victoria and Albert Museum, was brought 
from the Summer Palace of Yuan Ming Yuan, which was sacked by the 
Anglo-French expedition of 1860; and is a remarkably fine specimen of 
the high standard of technical excellence achieved in the Imperial workshops 
fostered by Ch’ien Lung. The decoration of each consists of a magnificent 
composition of the Nine Dragons, a mystic number, wheeling through 
masses of whirling clouds in pursuit of the Sacred Jewels of Omnipotence. 
The feet have leaf patterns with modified thunder-fret ; and the mouths 
are finished with gilt brass mounts, engraved with the same motive. The 
vases are carved in red lacquer only of a pure coral colour and in unusual 
depth. Such pieces must have taken many months to complete and would 
alone justify the claims put forward to a high position in the arts for Chinese 
lacquer-ware of the best quality. 

Height, 373 inches ; diameter, 234 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 18.—PANEL, THE TAOIST PARADISE 


On a diapered background of red lacquer is represented a scene in the 
Taoist Paradise. Shou Lao stands under a tree to the left, on a terraced 
island with elaborate railing. He wields the sceptre (ju-1) denoting his 
high rank, and near him are two attendants, one on the bank awaiting the 
approach of a boat containing offerings of flowers and jewels, described by 
Dr. Bushell as offerings from Si Wang Mu, the so-called Fairy Queen. 
Singly, and at intervals, other attendants approach, crossing by a foot- 
bridge from another island, on which are a pavilion and trees and bearing 
gifts—a staff, on which is tied a scroll, the peach of immortality, a pilgrim’s 
gourd and the “‘ box of good gifts,’”’ held by two boys, the “ genii of union 


41 


CHINESE LACQUER 


and harmony.’ On the near bank, to the right, is Shou Lao’s stag with 
another attendant. These figures and other details are encrusted in finely 
carved white and coloured jade, malachite and imitation lapis lazuli. 
Height, 30? inches ; width, 43 inches. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 19.—A Pair OF JARS WITH COVERS 


Each of these jars is decorated with four well-proportioned arabesque 
compartments displaying two Sages with boy attendants in a rocky land- 
scape with pavilions, trees, bridges, etc. In the angles above and below 
are the Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy Augury; the design being 
completed with bands of thunder-fret in leaf-shaped panels. Around the 
necks are panels of flowers. On the hat-shaped covers are smaller arabesque 
compartments, also with Sages and their attendants, the whole of the back- 
ground being richly diapered. In deeply cut carved red lacquer, on con- 
temporary stands of hard-wood formed with incurved lotus-leaves. An 
unusual feature is the weighting of the covers with lead in order to ensure 
stability. 

Height, 154 inches ; diameter, 9} inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 20.—STAND FOR CRYSTAL BALL 


Although small objects, chiefly boxes, were occasionally made in solid 
lacquer, elaborate compositions which can fairly be described as sculpture 
in the proper sense of the term, are seldom seen. The stand now repro- 
duced is, in part, on a basis of carved wood; but, to a considerable extent 
is actually cut in lacquer and with remarkable dexterity and vigour. It 
represents a group of Imperial sea-dragons rising from waves beating on 
rocks to grasp the Sacred Jewel represented by the crystal globe which 
surmounts the composition. In carved and pierced red lacquer. 

Height, 18 inches ; diameter, 6 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


Plate 21.— VASE FOR IMPERIAL GIFT, ON PORCELAIN 


The possibilities of porcelain as a basis for lacquer are demonstrated in this 
vase, of which both the base and the interior are well glazed. The principal 


42 





Pointy TIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


theme of the decoration is a scene in which T’an-mo (Bodhidharma, Jap. 
Daruma) is seated on a rock, his shoes lying in front of him and with a 
halo round his head, interviewing a standing sage holding a vajra (the 
thunderbolt emblem), in his right, and a bowl in his left hand. In the 
landscape are a pine and other trees, a waterfall and large rocks, on two of 
which are the inscriptions given below, the lettering touched with gold. 
Around the neck are two dragons in waves; and the vase is finished with 
a finely engraved brass rim. The whole is in well-executed and deeply 
carved red lacquer which shows no signs of deterioration. It should 
probably be placed in the later period of Ch’ien Lung’s reign. 

We are indebted to Mr. Arthur Waley for the translations following. He 
notes that the design does not entirely correspond with the words of the 
poems and suggests that the carver misunderstood some of the terms. 


1. Eulogy of the Lohan, composed by the Emperor. 


In his left hand he holds his Indian scroll-bag, 

In his right, a set of food-bowls. 

At home or abroad, sitting up or lying down 

He will never be separated from them, or put them aside. 
Long ago when Buddha was in the world 

He saved this hoary old man 

By preaching the law in a voice as powerful 

As the roaring of an angry lion. 


2. Eulogy of the Lohan, composed by the Emperor. 


His tense posture and clasped hands 
What secret power do they imply ¢ 

He who has signs and he who lacks signs, 
Which is the true patriarch ¢ 

Behind his head is the round disc 

Like the moon just at its full. 

The service of his feet he needs no more 
And has kicked off his straw shoes. 


The Lohan (saint), T’an-mo, the first of the Chinese Patriarchs, was an 
Indian prince who came to China about A.D. 520 and remained in medita- 
tion for nine years in a temple at Lo Yang; at the end of which time, he 


43 


CHINESE LACQUER 


had lost the use of his feet—hence the allusion in the two last lines of the 
second poem. 
Height, 134 inches ; diameter, 64 inches. 


Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
Plate 22.—Box FOR JEWELS 


An oval box ; carved above and below with a continuous design of lions 
sporting amid foaming waves. Unusual also is the colour of the lacquer 
in this instance—a pure olive-green. The interior is lacquered black. On 
the base is an inscription justifying the identification of the animal—which 
otherwise might well be a tiger—the translation being ‘‘ Ch’ien Lung 
period, Lion Treasure-box.”’ 

Height, 2? inches ; length, 8 inches ; width, 5? inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 23.— IMPERIAL CHAIR OF STATE 


This chair, one of a set of three from the Summer Palace, Peking, supplies 
another good example of the sumptuous furniture in which the Emperor 
Ch’ien Lung took delight. The handsome scrolled back is deeply carved 
with a noble sea-dragon, five-clawed and full-face, rising from the waves and 
holding above his head the circular character shou, in red lacquer. The 
border of this panel, the arms, thunder-pattern in form, and the seat are 
carved with a running pattern of lotus flowers and scrolls in red on a green 
svastika-diapered ground. The frame, legs and rails have a pattern of 
bats in clouds, with the musical stone in the centre of the front, forming 
a rebus which may be interpreted ‘‘ Good Fortune and Happiness.’”’ Both 
the seat and the back of the centre panel are incised with a representation 
of an Imperial dragon in clouds, grasping the Sacred Jewel. The front foot- 
rail has a protective ornament, dictated by sound common sense—a covering 
plate of bronze engraved with the lotus. 

Height, 37 inches ; depth, 21} inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


Plate 24.— IMPERIAL THREEFOLD SCREEN 


Behind an Imperial throne, such as 1s illustrated in the Frontispiece, stood 
a massive screen (feng-p’ing) which might, according to Dr. Bushell, have 
as many as twelve folds. The notorious Empress Dowager of China is 


44 


DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


represented, in a photograph illustrating a paper? by Sir Claude Macdonald, 
on the Defence of the Legations in 1900, as seated on a throne of this 
character, placed in front of a massive threefold screen. On either. side 
are stands, on which are dishes of fruit, of the same sort as those reproduced 
in Plate 25. With the screen now to be described, we are therefore able to 
illustrate a complete set of the Imperial equipment in this respect. This 
screen is of a quite unusual character. In the first place, its extraordinarily 
effective decoration consists of lettering only—but lettering so beautifully 
executed and spaced as to make it possible even for Western critics to 
understand why Calligraphy takes its place in China as one of the Four 
Liberal Arts; and fine writing or well-executed inscriptions have, for 
centuries, taken equal rank with painting and sculpture. In this case, the 
characters are superbly drawn ; and yet, without in the least detracting from 
their general effect, every stroke is enriched with minute but most 
delicately executed diaper patterns—chiefly hexagonal with a conventional 
flower in the centre. The inscriptions are in red on a brown diaper ground ; 
and from the admirable translation by Mr. Arthur Waley of the British 
Museum, which we are permitted to quote, we gather that the screen was 
made to commemorate the long lives and domestic virtues of two worthy 
citizens. 
The inscriptions, as translated by Mr. Arthur Waley, read :— 


Left-hand panel. 


Poem made by the Emperor and bestowed upon the centenarian Ku 
Ch’ao-chio of the district of Lung-ch’iian, province of Kiangsi; and 
upon Chang Tzii-hui, allowed to use the title of the ‘ veteran of 
Ssechuan,” in whose house five generations dwell together. 


“ The Dispenser of Good according to his wisdom sends 

down a hundred blessings. 

He has favoured in Kiangsi the family Ku and in 
Ssechuan the family Chang. 

In one case the head of a family has reached the 
stadium of a hundred ; 

In the other case a happy household is composed of five 
generations. 

By abstemious eating and well-mixed drinking the 
life of each has been multiplied by three ; 


1 Japan Society, Transactions XII, p. 4, 1913. 
45 


CHINESE LACQUER 


The husband ploughing, the wife weaving, the 
whole household has prospered. 
In the new Spring may they often sing stanzas 
of plenty and joy ; 
May what they pray for be given them and what 
they have be fulfilled and their record not broken.” 


Centre panel. 


Poem made by the Emperor to celebrate the old age of Chang Tzii-hui 
of Ta-chou in Ssechuan, in whose house five generations dwell to- 
gether. 


“ To the West of the River have been specially recorded 

omens of happiness and prosperity ; 

Old age extended to unwonted years of joy 
has been accorded to a certain Chang. 

He who reaches the stadium of a hundred has 
a right to the title ‘ shou ’ (veteran) ; 

How much the more he whose five generations live 
in one home ¢ ”’ 


Right-hand panel. 


*“* Each province was requested to report cases of centenarians and those 
who had five generations living in one house. Four additional cases 
were reported and copies of the poem composed by the Emperor in 
honour of the centenarian Chang Tzti-hui were sent to these other 
veterans. 

In Chihli, Shantung and Kwangtung provinces four such families 
were found—those of Chang, Kuo, Liu and Chung. These are cases 
of rare preservation and we trust that nothing will happen to spoil their 
record. 

Written by the minister Ts’ao Wén-t’an. 


The reverse side of the screen furnishes us with an almost dramatic con- 
trast. It is decorated with an all-over design, drawn with great spirit, of 
bats and clouds in flat gold or black. The frame and stand, of polished 
hard wood, are also singularly effective ; especially in regard to the bold 
dragon-headed scroll-work which forms the cresting. 

Height, 9 feet 104 inches ; width, 9 feet 6 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
46 


Poor iIPLIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plate 25.— IMPERIAL STAND FOR FRUIT OR FLOWERS 


As stated in the description of the Imperial Screen reproduced (Plate 24) 
in this volume, the Imperial Throne was flanked with a pair of stands, on 
which were placed bowls of fruit or flowers or, perhaps, incense burners. 
The stand now illustrated is one of such a pair. It is of rare and striking 
form. The table is five-lobed, its edges decorated with three principal 
bands of ornament; the upper and lower with lotus flowers and foliage, 
while in that of the centre band, somewhat withdrawn, the foliage is varied 
with the svastika and thunder-pattern alternately. This is supported by a 
group of five boldly carved figures, the upper parts of which are shaped 
as highly conventionalised phcenix heads, from which rise slender balusters ; 
while they terminate downwards each in a single leg and scrolled foot, orna- 
mented also with thunder-frets. The five-lobed double base is richly 
decorated with foliage and flowers. The work is chiefly in carved red 
lacquer of fine colour ; with underlayers of green and buff. 

Height, 364 inches ; diameter, 163 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
Plate 26.—PANEL, LANDSCAPE 


The panel here illustrated is one of a pair made for wall decoration ; and 
representing a class of work which, during the reign of the Emperor Ch’ien 
Lung, and, apparently, at his own behest, was carried to a very high pitch 
of technical perfection. Those best known were made to commemorate 
the victories of his army in Eastern Turkestan, in 1766, and the suppression 
of the Formosa Rebellion about twenty years later ; and show the move- 
ments of troops, with eulogistic poems, etc., carved generally in red and 
brown lacquer. The examples of this pictorial treatment of lacquer-work 
now under consideration, give us pure landscape, which loses nothing in 
decorative value by reason of its characteristic conventions. The actual 
subjects have not, so far, been identified. That reproduced has for its 
centre of interest, a rocky island, mainly occupied by a group of buildings 
evidently of some importance, having a two-storied pavilion overlooking 
the lake or river and various subsidiary edifices, with willow and other trees. 
The near shore is fringed with water-lilies; and, near by, three fishing- 
boats are seen, one of them working with trained cormorants. The pro- 
jection of another island or of the near shore is seen in the right foreground ; 
while the distance is occupied with a range of curiously contorted moun- 
tains beyond the water and a wooded promontory to the left. The second 


47 


CHINESE LACQUER 


of the pair is similar in treatment, but less successful as a composition. 
The design deals almost entirely with a mass of well-wooded and rocky 
country, overlooking a river. Near the summit, on the right is a group of 
imposing buildings from which a steep path leads to a quay on which is an 
elaborate gate-house, fronted with a ceremonial arch. Various small boats 
are in the river, and part of a building can be seen in the left foreground, 
on the near bank. These panels have their designs carved with extra- 
ordinary vigour and unusual depth in red lacquer. The water is of a 
greenish-black, which in the subject of our illustration, breaks into definite 
green for the crests of the little waves in the foreground. In both, the 
sky is simply left to a brown diaper pattern. 
Height, 5 feet 3 inches; width, 3 feet 2 inches. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 


Plate 27.—VASE Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


One of a pair of vases, of which the ovoid bodies are decorated with rec- 
tangular compartments in which are represented vases of flowers, the 
emblems of the Four Liberal Arts and similar objects, within a border of 
thunder-fret and on a trellis enclosing svastika. Between these panels is a 
filling of foliated scrolls and the necks and feet have leaf ornaments with 
thunder-pattern and borders of the latter pattern. In carved lacquer of 
three layers, red, green and yellowish-buff—the red being the chief. 

Height, 153 inches ; diameter, 84 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Frontispiece (front view), Plate 28 (back)—THRONE OF THE EMPEROR 
CH’IEN LuNG 


One of the principal treasures of the Victoria and Albert Museum, and 
certainly the finest example of carved lacquer yet seen in this country, is the 
Throne of the Emperor Ch’ien Lung, presented to the Victoria and Albert 
Museum by Mr. George Swift, J.P.,in 1922. It is said to have come from 
the Hunting Palace of Nan-hai-tze, near Peking, and to be one of a pair, the 
other being still, one hopes, preserved in the capital. There appears to be 
absolutely no doubt as to its authenticity ; while, as a work of art, its merits 
speak for themselves; and it may be taken as representing the standard 
of highest achievement of the craftsmen of the Imperial workshop—and 
of the period of its origin. 

The throne forms a broad, low seat, with four boldly incurved legs, 


48 


DESCRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


shaped like elephants’ trunks, and resting on a double stand, with low- 
shaped supports. The back and side-pieces are shaped, and in three 
separate pieces, fitting into slots. The shallow curves of these three portions 
of the composition, are emphasised by bold scrolls in high relief, placed 
well within the outer edges. In each of these, is a pictorial composition, 
that in the centre consisting of an elephant, the sacred animal of the Budd- 
hist Law, bearing on his back the Vase of Jewels ; a rebus which has been 
interpreted as “‘ Peace reigns in the North.” If that is an allusion to the 
victories in Eastern Turkestan, it suggests 1766 as a possible date for the 
work. The elephant is accompanied by attendants, one with a banner and 
others with various symbolical objects; and the scene is laid in a rocky 
landscape with diapered background. The remainder of the space is filled 
with conventional cloud-pattern forming a background on which are 
five-clawed dragons hunting sacred jewels, one of which is grasped by the 
full-face dragon over the centre panel. Among the clouds, also, are bats— 
emblems of Happiness. 

The panels in the side-wings represent foreigners bearing gifts, in similar 
landscapes. On each side are three—those on the right of distinctly Indo- 
Buddhistic type of face and dress, carrying the vajra or thunderbolt em- 
blem, what looks like an ape, and a bowl of peaches respectively. On the 
left, the man in front is turbaned, has ear-rings and bears a vase with a large 
branch of coral ; on his right is one with a banner with long feather-shaped 
pennon and surmounted with three plumes. In the rear, to the right is a 
bare-footed soldier, with high conical hat and, apparently, a long-sheathed 
straight-bladed sword with large pommel. Within and without the scrolls 
of these wings are bats in clouds ; and each is surmounted with an Imperial 
dragon. The reverse of the wings is similarly decorated. That of the back 
has a rich design of bats, lotus flowers and foliated scrolls, with a central 
rebus consisting of five bats, a musical stone, a pair of fishes and a lotus 
flower, signifying the Five Blessings, Good Fortune, Conjugal Felicity and 
Fertility and Purity. The seat itself is of flat lacquer, with peony scrolls, 
peaches, bats and svastika in olive-green and flat gold on a vermilion ground, 
and within a border of black thunder-fret. It is provided with a beautiful 
cushion of contemporary brocade patterned on a ground of peach-blossom 
colour, The carved lacquer is chiefly red, cut through to inner layers of 
light and dark olive-green, brown and yellow. 

Height, 3 feet 11 inches ; width, 4 feet 14 inches; depth, 3 feet. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
49 E 


CHINESE LACQUER 


Plate 29.—CovERED BOWL FOR CEREMONIAL GIFT 


This is a large bowl of a type by no means uncommon but unusually well 
executed. Its cover is decorated with a circular compartment containing 
a richly ornamented bowl, in which are various emblems of good portent, 
conspicuous among them being the Endless Knot, Coral, etc. From this 
rises a rainbow-hued emanation surmounted with the character Ch’un 
(spring), in the centre of which is Shou Lao seated with an attendant and 
his familiar stag. On either side is an Imperial dragon in clouds. Around 
the bowl are compartments, with the Eight Sages and their boy attendants, 
and also the Eight Precious Things, on a ground of lattice-work, enclosing 
a floral diaper. In carved lacquer of four layers, red, green, buff and 
aubergine—a rare example of the use of the latter. The carving is very deep 
—not less than a quarter of an inch in places. A similar bowl in three 
colours is in the Victoria and Albert Museum, No. 655-1872. 

Height, 5 inches ; diameter, 21 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
Plate 29.—Box FOR INCENSE 


A four-lobed incense box of solid red lacquer, the lid carved with a sage 
bearing a staff, and boy attendant carrying a manuscript box, in a landscape 
with tree and rocks, within a border of leaf ornament ; the sides decorated 
with flowers in four compartments on diapered ground. The interior is 
lacquered black, inscribed ‘‘ Treasure Incense Box.” 

Height, 2 inches; diameter, 34 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (dated, Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 29.—Box FOR INCENSE 


A five-lobed incense box, the lid with a group of three peaches, flowers 
and foliage, the latter lacquered in colours, the peaches diapered. In 
carved lacquer of two layers, red and brown, the interior black. 

Height, 2 inches; width, 43 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 30.—BowL oF WovEN BAMBOO, WITH PANEL IN COLOURS 


A circular box and cover, the upper part of which is of finely woven 
bamboo with a circular compartment of flat lacquer in gold and various 


50 


Meow PLIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS 


colours. Within the circle is an arabesque compartment with a richly 
decorated pavilion, at the entrance to which a lady of high rank, attended by 
a female fan-bearer is receiving a distinguished visitor, also with a fan- 
bearer, whose white horse is held by a servant. Within the pavilion, a 
woman can be seen with a bowl and ewer on a table. The colours used are 
gold, red, green, slate-blue and white on a ground of rich crimson. Around 
the base are chrysanthemum blossoms and svastika diaper in gold on red, 
with a mark in gold which has not been identified. It is suggested that the 
subject represents the visit of the Emperor Muh Wang (B.c. 1001-947) to 
Si Wang Mu, the Western Royal Mother, at the Lake of Gems in the West, 
where the Peach-tree of Immortality grew. The painting is of high quality 
and shows a wider range of colour than was used by the Japanese until 
quite modern times. It may certainly be placed in the Ming period, 
probably in the reign of Wan Li. 
Height, 5g inches ; diameter, 114 inches. 
Ming Dynasty (Wan L1) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


Plate 31.—Saucers (Two) FOR WINE Cups 


The modern Chinese lacquer in gold on black is well known by reason 
of the large quantities brought to this country from Canton, by the tea 
merchants of the 19th century. Although, at its best, it is by no means 
without merit, it can only be looked on as a commercial product, made 
especially for export and for the benefit of Europeans. The examples now 
reproduced are in quite another category. They are chosen from a com- 
plete set of five—the usual number—and are most delicately lacquered on 
woven bamboo of extraordinary fineness. In this respect they may be 
compared with the bowl illustrated on Plate 30 ; and with a pair of saucers 
decorated in red, blue and other colours on flat gold, in the Victoria and 
Albert Museum, No. W. 182-1923. Those under notice have designs 
in fine gold and red on a black ground, the subjects represented being 
sages with disciples and attendants in moonlit gardens with buildings and 
various trees. The borders are of flowers and butterflies, and thunder- 
fret respectively. In the opinion of Mr. Imaizumi, the Japanese expert 
of the Imperial Museum, Tokyo, this work especially influenced the 
Japanese School of Shiomi Masanari. 

Height, inch ; diameter, 43 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (late) 
From the Collection of James Orange, Esq. 


51 


CHINESE LACQUER 


Plate 32.—SET OF BoxES FOR SWEETMEATS 


Examples of Chinese gold or silver lacquer in relief, in any degree compara- 
able with the Japanese ware of this kind, are of quite exceptional rarity. 
With a character quite of their own, the set of boxes now reproduced will, 
however, hold their place in any company. They are delicately shaped, and 
yet the designs are boldly conceived and executed. These are all sym- 
bolical of good fortune of one sort or another; the subjects represented 
being a Mandarin Duck, Water Buffalo, Peony and Aster, a pair of Peaches 
and of Bats, and two fans of different shapes, one with Peonies and thunder- 
pattern on the handle and the other with homing Geese. The relief is, 
for work of this kind, considerable ; and the lacquer of gold and silver, 
tinted with red, is of high quality. 

Height, 14 inches ; width, about 34 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (late) 
From the Collection of Dr. W. Perceval Yetts. 


Plate 33.—PANEL FROM A FOURFOLD SCREEN 


We reproduce one panel from a fourfold screen of unusual technical 
interest, inasmuch as a good deal of the decoration is in bold relief, of the 
kind called by the Japanese takamakiye ; a process not much used by 
Chinese lacquerers and rarely with the skill shown in this example. It 
represents a hunting-scene set in a landscape which has points of resem- 
blance with that illustrated in Plate 34, particularly in regard to the plank- 
roads and bridges over which the huntsmen fearlessly gallop. In this case, 
however, there is no trace of European influence; and the costume and 
other accessories are essentially native. The decoration is chiefly in gold, red 
and brown, but other colours are used ; and the effect is enhanced by the 
use of incrusted ivory, shell and hard stones. The work may be ascribed 
to the Canton district, and in the treatment of details, particularly of the 
foliage, there are many similarities with that illustrated in Plate 35. 

Height, 3 feet 24 inches ; width (each panel), 1 foot 9 inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 34S.—CREEN (THREE PANELS) 

The screen was one of the first articles of Chinese furniture to appeal to 
European taste ; and towards the end of the 17th century became perhaps 
the most important of the exports from that country to Europe, where 
it was not only popular in its original form but was cut up to be remade 


52 


PesomiP TIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


into many other articles. Canton seems to have been the leading market for 
this work, and the close touch with Europeans existing at this port is 
frequently reflected in the designs of lacquered screens made there or in the 
neighbourhood. Among them, the hunting scene seems to have been a 
great favourite ; and we reproduce a portion of a screen giving a typical 
example of this class, and notable also as being, in all other respects, an 
unusually good specimen of flat lacquer of its period. The scene represents 
a fort on a rocky shore, defended by a battlemented tower on the left, 
appearing above clouds. Near it is a European ship of war, with broad- 
side of eight guns and lateral tricolor flag of orange, green and red. On the 
shore, to the left, is what may be a church with cross outside. To the right, 
near the top of the screen is a tent with decorated roof, near which men are 
cutting up a deer ; and in various parts of the landscape are Europeans of 
various degree, one cloaked and mounted and with an escort of three 
matchlock-men, others with guns and cross-bows, greyhounds, etc. 
Above and below is a border with a portion of the Hundred Antiques. It 
seems possible that the scene is intended to represent Macao, which was 
occupied by the Portuguese early in the 17th century. Semedo gives a good 
account of its fortifications and general condition at the time he was in 
China; and the bulk of the Chinese trade done there was naturally with 
Canton, from dues on which an income of from 40,000 to 50,000 crowns 
was then derived. This suggestion is supported by J. Nieuhoff’s en- 
graving of 1655 (reproduced in “‘ The Chater Collection ” by James Orange, 
1925, Pp. 301), which shows a circular fort on the left and a Dutch ship 
entering the harbour.’ The whole treatment of the subject is characteristic- 
ally Chinese ; and it is curious to note how well the artist, without incon- 
gruity, brings into his decorative scheme the European costumes—full- 
bottomed wigs and all. The lacquer is of good quality and the colours 
particularly brilliant, including vermilion, blue, green, orange, brown, 
black and white. 
Height, 7 feet 3 inches ; width (each panel), 1 foot 84 inches. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hs1) 
From the Collection of Ernest Rennie, Esq. 


Plate 35.—SCREEN (PORTIONS OF CRESTING AND OF ONE PANEL) MADE FOR 
THE EMPEROR LEOPOLD I 
About the year 1700, the Jesuit Fathers in China sent to Europe a pair 
of sixfold screens, made to the order of, or as a gift to the Emperor 
Leopold I of Austria. One was presented by his son, the Emperor Charles 


33 


CHINESE LACQUER 


VI (1711-1740) to a Sicilian noble during the Austrian occupation of that 
country, 1720-1734. The other is now in the collection of Earl Spencer, in 
whose family it has been for many years. These screens, of which we repro- 
duce the cresting and the upper part of the decoration of one panel, are of 
particular interest and historical value. The finely carved cresting includes 
in its design the Austrian double-headed eagle; and the screen itself, 
of flat lacquer, is executed in gold of various shades on a warm red ground. 
The back has floral ornament in black-and-white on dull red. The design 
represents a hunting scene, in which only Europeans, in the costume of 
the late 17th century, are taking part. An interesting detail is the intro- 
duction of women in European costume on the veranda of a pavilion. In 
some respects, one seems to recognise details of the buildings which appear 
in the screen illustrated in Plate 34—-whether this is due merely to a con- 
vention popular with Cantonese artists, or that it actually pretends to give 
a view of Macao, one cannot say with certainty. The foliage of the trees is 
treated almost exactly, so far as regards the style of drawing, as in Plate 33. 
Height, 6 feet 7 inches ; width (each panel), 1 foot 9 inches. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
Reproduced by permission of R. Freeman Smith, Esq. 


Plate 36.— CABINET 


This cabinet is of unusual and characteristic form, in no way resembling 
the well-known Japanese articles of a similar kind. It is rectangular, with 
folding doors; divided, within, into two compartments, each providing 
two open recesses separated by a drawer. On the top are two shallow, 
box-shaped erections, each with adrawer. The fret-shaped handle, elabor- 
ate fastening and mounts are of chased bronze, with remains of gilding. With 
the exception of the fronts of the two interval drawers, which are of gold 
lacquer, the whole of the decoration is of raised gold and silver (similar 
to the Japanese takamakiye) on rich dark wine-coloured lacquer flecked 
with gold in:the manner of nashiji. On the doors is represented a rocky 
landscape, with pavilions, a terrace on which is a tall vase with a pair of 
rods, aged pine-trees and a pair of cranes. On each side is a vase of flowers 
with four of the Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy Augury. On the top 
of each of the upper boxes is an elephant bearing the sacred treasures ; and 
on the lower part of the cover, are peaches, chrysanthemums, bats and the 
longevity character shou. The inside of the doors has a rebus of the bat 
and musical stone, with lotus blossom and chrysanthemum scrolls, within a 
border of bats, flowers and shou characters. The fronts of the inner drawers 


34 


PEeroRIPTIONS OF THE TLLUSTRATIONS 


have flowers and fret pattern in relief, in gold on gold ground. This is an 
unusually good example of what the Chinese could do in that art of lacquer 
in relief which their Japanese rivals carried to technical perfection. It 
almost certainly derives from the South—probably Canton, and may be 
dated early in the second half of the 17th century. 
Height, 102 inches ; width, 133 inches; depth, 7} inches. 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi, early) 
From the Collection of James Orange, Esq. 


Plates 37, 38.—Picnic SET WITH OVERHANGING COVER 


This is a brilliant example of the Chinese use of flat colours, combined 
with carved red lacquer ; and both in the perfected technique of the Ch’ien 
Lung period. It is octagonal in plan; and consists of a stand, on which 
are three receptacles, the lower two being empty and the upper fitted with 
a nest of one large and eight smaller boxes. Over these is a cover of carved 
red lacquer, with open sides permitting the decoration of the receptacles 
to be seen. With the exception of this cover, the ornament is in painted 
lacquer and in three bands ; that in the middle consisting of lotus blossoms 
in coral red, picked out with cream and with dark green foliage ; while 
above and below is a diaper of formal chrysanthemum flowers in white. 
The angles have svastika diaper pattern, in red, with lotus flowers above 
and below, and strapwork. The smaller boxes have lotus flowers in red 
and warm cream colour with borders of fret pattern. The surface of the 
stand has lotus and other flowers in cream, red and purple starred amid 
interlacing foliage of a rich green—a remarkably beautiful and effective 
design. At its sides are panels with highly conventionalised feng birds ; 
and the eight shaped feet are decorated with lotus and scrolls. The cover 
is in deeply carved (,%;-inch) red lacquer. On its upper surface is a garden 
near a lake with plank bridge, willow and maple trees and distant moun- 
tains; with two sages and their boy attendants. The ribs have floral 
scrolls. This piece is remarkable, not only for the excellence of its design, 
but for the range of colours used—the white or cream colour, purple and 
fine green being very unusual in Chinese and still more rare in Japanese 
lacquer. A similar, but less elaborate piece is in the Victoria and Albert 
Museum, the colours of which cannot compare, for brilliancy, with the 
specimen under review. 

Height, 92 inches ; stand, 82 inches; square. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
35 


CHINESE LACQUER 


Plate 39.—NEsT OF SWEETMEAT DISHES 


Sets of dishes of this kind are not infrequently found in Canton painted 
enamels; but the specimen now reproduced is a rare example of its pro- 
duction in lacquer-ware, and remarkable also for its colour—the decoration 
being in flat gold on a fine, deep blue. It consists of a circular tray and 
central dish ; around the latter eight segmental dishes being neatly fitted, 
each decorated with one of the symbols, set in cloud pattern, of the Eight 
Taoist Immortal Genii—of which it thus supplies a clear and easily in- 
telligible representation. In the centre is a rebus for Happiness and Long 
Life, a spray of peaches, with bats and asters. The borders are of thunder- 
fret and the bases lacquered black. 

Height, 1 inch ; diameter, 13? inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 40.—PANEL FOR WALL DECORATION 


In this panel, the decoration consists entirely of a magnolia tree in blossom, 
on the branches of which are seated a pair of pheasants, within a border of 
thunder-fret, varied with eight arabesque compartments enclosing con- 
ventional lotus sprays. This design is carried out entirely in inlaid shell, on 
which lines completing the fine drawing of the flowers and foliage are en- 
sraved and filled in with colour ; the ground being a brilliant red. 

91ze, 40+ inches square. 

Ming Dynasty (late) 
Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 
Plate 41.—EWER FOR CEREMONIAL USE 


This ewer, but for its characteristically Chinese handle, is strongly remin- 
iscent of Persian forms. Its body is four-sided and pear-shaped, with long, 
graceful neck and spout. The basic material is pewter, lacquered black 
and decorated with sprays of flowers with birds, insects, etc., in compart- 
ments on either side, encrusted in shell, ivory, carved red lacquer and lacquer 
composition, within borders of thickly placed tessere of shell, reminding 
one of the Japanese kirikane. The foot has a diaper pattern in shell. 

Height, 14 inches ; width, 7 inches; depth, 4+ inches. 


Ming Dynasty (Wan Li), the panels restored in the Ch’ien Lung period. 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


56 


Posen itP TIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plate 42.—EWER FOR TEMPLE USE 


An early and remarkable example of lac burgautée work, of wood, lined and 
bound with silver, cylindrical in form with projecting spout, chain and ball 
handle, and shaped mouth. The decoration, in inlay of gold, silver and 
shell on black lacquer, is in three lateral bands. The upper of these has 
four-clawed dragons in clouds ; those below represent garden scenes with 
sages and boy attendants. The silver-gilt bands are chased with dragons, 
birds and various animals and diaper patterns, and the spout is well 
modelled in form of a dragon’s head. The mount of the mouth has a run- 
ning pattern of lotus flowers and leaves, and on the lid is a conventional 
flower. 

Height, 20 inches ; diameter, 54 inches. 

Ming Dynasty (late) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 43.—PANEL FOR WALL DECORATION 


In this panel, the use of inlaid shell is carried to its utmost limits; the 
black lacquer in which it is embedded, only coming to the surface as the 
ground of the various diapers and of the clouds. The scene represents 
Shou Lao seated in a pavilion on the shore of a lake. Towards him, pre- 
ceded by his stork, is a small procession of two acolytes, one bearing a pot 
and another with a peach and spray of flowers. They are followed by two 
attendants carrying a ceremonial fan and sword respectively. Near the 
pavilion is a palm-tree and, overhead, an aged pine. Above is the full moon 
and clouds. The whole is within a broad diaper of intersecting circles and 
florets. The shell is engraved and is all iridescent, producing an extraordin- 
arily rich effect of colour in which peacock green and blue predominate. 


Height, 13 inches ; width, 18 inches. Ming Dynasty (ate) 


Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 44.—Door oF CABINET 


The period of K’ang Hsi is distinguished by a freedom of design, especially 
in the treatment of subjects derived from Nature, such as flowers, which 
is altogether superior to the formalism that succeeded it during the reign 
of Ch’ien Lung. The “‘ Door of a Cabinet,’”’ of which this illustration 
gives a reproduction, gives a typical instance of this quality. The decora- 
tion consists of a pair of Imperial Birds (feng huang), the emblems of the 
Empress, wheeling amid blossoming branches of the tree peony, typical 
of spring. Above is the full moon and a strip of cloud and, below, rocks 


37 


CHINESE LACQUER 


and a bank of soil formed with shell-dust. The whole is within a border of 
fret-pattern. All the design is carried out in iridescent shell, the prevailing 
colours being green, gold and reddish-purple; the flowers and bodies 
of the birds being lightly, but skilfully engraved. The door is in two 
sections. It has a good hasp of bronze chased with foliated scrolls. The 
interior of the cabinet is of the usual type and without special features of 
interest. 
Height, 134 inches ; width, 9? inches. 


Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi) 
From the Collection of W. Reynolds Stephens, Esq. 


Plate 45.—VASE, LAC burgautée ON PORCELAIN 


Lac burgautée was occasionally applied to porcelain. Dr. Stephen 
Bushell describes a vase, then in his own collection, which is an example 
of this development; and is placed by him in the K’ang Hsi period 
(Chinese Art, II, Fig. 53). This is twenty-eight inches in height ; and on 
white porcelain ; the rims and interior being glazed and the exterior (left 
unglazed for the purpose) decorated with scenes of agricultural and village — 
life in shell, partly tinted, gold and silver on black. 

The Victoria and Albert Museum possesses three examples of lac bur- 
gautée on porcelain. A piece (807-1883) which is important on account 
of its size, though a little smaller than that formerly in the Bushell Col- 
lection, is a large vase, two feet one inch in height and circular in section, 
decorated with four sages, each with a boy attendant, in a bamboo grove 
near a lake, with bridge, pavilions, pagoda, etc. ; and background of moun- 
tains under afullmoon. This has the mark of Ch’eng-hua (A.D. 1465-1487); 
but is certainly Ch’ien Lung. The basis is white porcelain and the black 
lacquer ground, which is not of very good quality, is carried deeply into 
the interior. Another piece (118-1883) is a cap stand, height 10? inches, 
with boys playing in a garden near a lake, with pines, bamboo, lotus flowers, 
etc., also in black ground but on a basis of rough unglazed porcelain. The 
third (118-1883) is notable for its colour, which is that of light bronze 
shaded below into a good imitation of copper. This is a globular jar, with 
cover, 72 inches high and 9g inches in diameter with three sages and a boy 
on the bank of a lake, under the full moon. The basis is, again, white 
porcelain, with glazed foot and interior. The period is unquestionably 
Ch’ien Lung; and the lacquer is of quite good quality—its colour is very 
rare. 


58 


Dee GRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


The subject of our illustration is later in date and may with some cer- 
tainty be ascribed to the Ch’ien Lung period of about the year 1760—when 
vases of this form were already being made at Liverpool. It is, at the base 
and neck, an oval, quatrefoil in section, forming a slightly shaped flattened 
oval at the shoulders. On either side are almost identical garden scenes 
in shaped compartments, each with a pavilion, pine and maple-trees 
springing from a slightly engraved rock, tree-peony, bamboo, a rustic 
bridge and lake on which is a boat. On the neck and sides are conventional 
flowers. The lacquer is on white porcelain, the base, rims and interior 
having a good glaze. The details are simple but effective ; and an excellent 
colour-scheme has been secured without the use of metals—the shell giving 
iridescent lights mainly of green and reddish-purple. The cover has only 
a band of flowers, etc., and plain knob. 

Height, 12? inches. 

Ch’ing Dynasty (Ch’ien Lung) 
From the Collection of W. Reynolds Stephens, Esq. 


Plate 46.—BEAKER, COLOUR INCISED ON PORCELAIN 


This interesting example of lacquer on porcelain was recently acquired for 
the British Museum, and has been fully described by Mr. R. L. Hobson 
in the Burlington Magazine, Vol. XL, page 297. Itaffords an early specimen 
of a combination which is always rare ; and, in this instance, is remarkable 
from one particular point of view, namely, the treatment of the lacquer. 
The beaker consists of white porcelain with a minimum of blue, the latter 
occurring only in the written six-character mark of Wan Li (A.D. 1573-1620) 
in a reserved compartment on the rim and on the four-line mask handles 
on the sides. Otherwise, Mr. Hobson describes it as ‘“* a strong solid body 
of clean white grain and smooth to the touch ; the interior has a thick glaze 
of rather impure white colour.’”’ In his opinion, the rest of the surface was 
left not only unglazed, but rough “‘ to give a hold to the lacquer with which 
it is entirely covered to the thickness of about a twentieth of an inch.”” No 
doubt this is so, as regards the absence of glaze ; but it may be pointed out 
that no especial roughness is needed to hold the lacquer, which would 
adhere very closely to a fine biscuit surface corresponding to the highly 
finished and polished surface of lacquer composition on fine wood which 
forms its ordinary basis. When the lacquer used was pure and well applied 
—in the case of Chinese lacquer, even in the Ming era, this was by no 
means a matter of course—there is no reason why it should have scaled. 


39 


CHINESE LACQUER 


The other examples of lacquer on porcelain described herein, are both quite 
free from this defect. 

The decoration is incised and in brown, green, red and dull yellow touched 
with gold. In this respect, as well as in the drawing of the decorative 
details, it offers an interesting comparison with the subject of Plate 47. 
Another example of incised lacquer occurs in the seat of the Imperial 
Chair (Plate 23) and we have seen a whole set of furniture decorated 
almost entirely in this manner and with a more or less similar colour- 
scheme. The fronts of the neck have each an Imperial dragon encircling 
the Sacred Jewel ; above is a ribbon forming the character Shou (Longevity), 
and, below, green waves with yellow crests and rocks. Mr. Hobson points 
out that these are the “‘ jewel mountains in sea waves,’ mentioned in the 
list of designs used on porcelain of the Wan Li period. On either side are 
more dragons emerging from waves; and, lower, in pairs, contending for 
the Jewel ; while the stem has the typical rock, wave and cloud pattern with 
lucky emblems. 


Height, 133 inches. Ming Dynasty 


British Museum. 
Plate 47.—CIRCULAR PLAQUE 


This plaque is of interest as providing an earlier version of the design 
executed in carved lacquer on the bowl illustrated in Plate 29, with which it 
is practically identical except that the Sacred Jewel now occupies the place 
of honour in the centre of the bowl of treasures, given in the other object, 
to the Endless Knot. This plaque, moreover, supplies an excellent example 
of incised lacquer—the chinkinbori of the Japanese—who adopted the 
method from China. The engraved lines are coloured with vermilion, 
crimson, purple, brown and yellow. The reverse is black. An earlier 
attribution of date is given to it, not only in respect of the technical 
execution, but also on account of the far greater breadth and vigour of 
the design. 


Diameter, 17} inches. Ming Dynasty (late) 


Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 48.—Cups (A PAIR) AND A Bow. 


One of the technical processes derived from China by the Japanese is that 
called by the latter guri (crook ring)—a word now said by Japanese philolo- 
gists to be of uncertain but definitely foreign origin. It consists of alternate 
layers of lacquer of various colours, having a considerable depth, and 


60 


a ae 


Pio GRIPTIONS. OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


carved in scroll or diaper patterns in a V-shaped section from the outer 
surface. The pair of cups and the bowl now illustrated are good examples 
of this method as practised in China, In each case, the layers of lacquer are, 
alternately, of black and red only. The pattern of the former is of bold 
scrolls, in the arrangement of which a little imagination enables one to 
identify grotesque masks which are suggestive of the ‘ glutton ’’ ogre 
t’ao-t’ieh, well described by Dr. Yetts in Symbolism in Chinese Art. The 
bowl has a geometrical pattern of a kind not occurring, so far as we are 
aware, in Japanese guri. A Pacific origin for this ornament seems within 
the bounds of possibility. In each case, the interior is lined with silver. 
Cups : height, 33 inches ; diameter, 33 inches. 
Bowl : height, 3? inches ; diameter, 8} inches. 
Ming Dynasty (late) 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hs1) 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 
Plate 49.— Trays (Two) 


As examples of modern Foochou lacquer, we reproduce two specimens 
by no means without technical merit of a fairly high order. Each is boldly 
carved, in form of a lotus leaf supporting a blossom, the support consisting 
of a cleverly designed arrangement of the rest of the spray. The lacquer 
is of fine quality and surface, in delicately shaded green and brown, pow- 
dered with gold and silver dust. 

Height, 3} inches ; width, 11 inches ; depth, 9? inches. 

tgth century (middle) 
From the Collection of Mrs. Cooper and the Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 50.—TWELVEFOLD SCREEN, “‘ COROMANDEL ’’ LACQUER 


Our illustrations of ‘‘ Coromandel ’’ work are taken from the two superb 
screens at South Kensington, which represent, perhaps, the highest 
standard of quality attained by the unknown but extraordinarily skilful 
artists who practised it. The first represents ‘‘ The Taoist Genit paying 
homage to Shou Lao ”—the God of Longevity (Chu Hsien Ching Shou)— 
a deification of Lao Tzti, the founder of the Taoist philosophy. 

The scene is laid in the Taoist Paradise, in the centre of which Shou Lao 
is seated, with sceptre and sacred jewel. In front of him are his deer and 
storks, the “‘ Twin Genii of Union and Harmony,” and, to the right, the 
“ Eight Taoist Immortals ’’ (Pa Hsien) with their attributes. Other Taoist 
personages and symbols are distributed throughout the composition, which 


61 


CHINESE LACQUER 


is framed with a border of trellis ornament in which the shou character 
alternates with circular medallions with displayed birds. The latter 
Dr. Bushell described as phcenixes and based thereon the suggestion that 
they furnished an indication of the screen having been made for an Empress. 
With all deference to so distinguished an authority, we think they are to be 
recognised as storks, the emblem entirely appropriate to the subject as 
being symbolical of long life. At the foot of each panel is one of the 
“ Flowers of the Twelve Months,’ while the remainder of the border is 
occupied with vases and baskets of flowers and ancient bronze utensils. 
Outside all is a double band of a running pattern of lotus and scrolls and 
of thunder-fret alternately. The reverse of this screen is decorated with 
rectangular compartments with representations of figure subjects; land- 
scapes; birds, flowers and fruit; the symbols of the Four Liberal Arts 
(writing, painting, music and Wei Chi—the game known to the Japanese 
as Go and generally, but inaccurately described as chess); and sacred 
relics and emblems both of the Buddhist and Taoist cults. The colouring 
of this remarkable work is very fine, the prevailing hues being red, blue, 
bright green and white on a rich brown-black ground. The landscapes, 
of which Plate 51 reproduces an example, are particularly effective, relying 
mainly on strong line and mass with a masterly reticence and elimination 
of unnecessary detail. Dr. Bushell attributes this screen and also that next 
to be dealt with in this volume to the period of Ch’ien Lung ; but the free 
and vigorous treatment of the principal themes of decoration inclines us 
to give both a somewhat earlier date. 
Height, 8 feet 24 inches ; width, 19 feet 3 inches. © 
Ch’ing Dynasty (K’ang Hsi). 
Plate 51 
Landscape from the reverse of the above screen, Plate 50. 


Plate 52 


Two vases of flowers and two “ Flowers of the Months ”—(Lotus, July, 
and Chrysanthemum, October) from the border of Plate 50. 


Victoria and Albert Museum. 


Plate 53.— SCREEN, ‘‘ COROMANDEL ”’ LACQUER (FOUR PANELS) 

The second of the two screens at Kensington is of importance at least 
equal to that of the first and, in artistic merit, its superior. Here we have 
a coherent composition executed with breadth and simplicity in detail, 


62 


PeGRIPTIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS 


and yet astonishingly rich in its general decorative effect. In the centre of 
the main picture is a group of old pine-trees with many flowers. On its 
right is an ancient sea from the waves of which rises, on banks of cloud, 
a two-storied pavilion representing the Taoist Paradise, T’ien T’ang. Over 
the crest of the waves gambols the dragon-headed horse (lung ma) while 
the divine tortoise (shén kuei) rises amid them—on each are magical 
arithmetical squares. The sacred jewel, artemisia leaf, double cash and 
coral are also seen, while a stork wheels in the air above. On the left, a 
pair of dappled deer recline near a rock covered with flowers on the bank 
of a gentle stream near which are pairs of pheasants, mandarin ducks and 
other birds. Around this is a broad border on which is represented the 
whole of the “* Hundred Antiques ”’ (po ku) within narrow bands of dragons 
and of lotus and scrolls respectively. On the reverse are two rows of 
rectangular and fan-shaped compartments, alternately, with landscapes and 
poems written in various kinds of script, also within a border of emblems 
and antiques, with bands of phcenixes and dragons with scrolled tails and 
the shou character. In this screen a liberal use has been made of gold, and 
the ornament is in relief as well as incised. The ground is a rich black, and 
the chief colours are a brilliant turquoise blue, wine-colour, several shades 
of green, rose-pink and white. The decoration might almost be said to go 
far towards providing a compendium of Chinese ornament. 
Height, 8 feet 10 inches; width (whole screen), 21 feet. 


Plate 54 
Four panels from the reverse of the above screen, Plate 53. 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


NoTE.—The objects to which the name of Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd., is appended 
were selected from the Exhibition held by that firm in June, 1925. 


63 





MARKS OF DATE 


These marks are read from right to left and from above downwards. In 
the 6-character marks the two first characters, beginning at the top right 
hand corner, are those of the dynasty; then come two giving the name 
of the Emperor; and, lastly, two reading “ period” and “ made.’”’ In 
the case of the 4-character marks, those signifying the dynasty are omitted. 
The marks now reproduced are those of most importance in the case of 
lacquer, 


MING DYNASTY 
Hung Wu (1368-1398). 
Yung Lo (1403-1424). 
Dai Ming Hsiian Te (1426-1435). 
Dai Ming Ch’éng Hua (1465-1487). 
Dai Ming Hung Chih (1488-1505). 
Dai Ming Chéng Té (1506-1521). 
Dai Ming Chia Ching (1522-1566). 
Dai Ming Lung Ch’ing (1567-1572). 
Dai Ming Wan Li (1573-1619). 
Dai Ming T’ien Ch’i (1621-1627). 
Ch’ung Chén (1628-1643). 


peek ch 5) bind 2 eh ala 


aS we 
4 9 © 


CH’ING (OR MANCHU) DYNASTY 


12. Dai Ch’ing Shun Chih (1644-1661). 
13. Dai Ch’ing K’ang Hsi (1662-1722). 
14. Dai Ch’ing Yung Chéng (1723-1735). 
15. Dai Ch’ing Ch’ien Lung (1736-1795). 
16. Chia Ch’ing (1796-1820). 


65 F 


CHINESE LACQUER 


DATE MARKS 


66 


MOTIVES OF DECORATION 


PA PAO. THE EIGHT PRECIOUS THINGS 





CuHu. | CH’IEN. FANG-SHENG. 
A Jewel. Ae Cash. . A Lozenge. 


SHU. Hua. 
A Pair of Books, A Painting. 





Cu’ ING. CHUiEH. AI-YEH. 
A Musical Stone. A Pair of Rhinoceros-hora Cups. An Artemisia Keaf. 


PA CHI-HSIANG 
THE EIGHT BUDDHIST EMBLEMS OF HAPPY AUGURY 





Lun. Lo. SAN. 


The Wheel in Flames. A Conch-Shell. The State Umbrella. 








AZ 
Kal, Hua, 
A Canopy. Lotus Flower. 
P’ING. CHANG. 
Vase. A Pair of Fish. Entrails or Endless Knot. 
SUNDRY 
SVASTIKA. Linc CHIH. Fu. 
In a Lozenge. Sacred Fungus. One of the 12 Ancient 
Embroidery Patterns. 
68 


ee = 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


B., C.—Traité de mignature, . . . le secret de faire . . . le vernis de la Chine. 1 cut. La 
Haye, 1688. 

B., C.—Traité de mignature, etc. Nouvelle édition augmentée. 1 cut. Rouen, 1694. 

Bonannl, Filippo, Jesuit.—Traité de la composition des vernis en général, employés dans la 
peinture, etc. 4 pen drawings. Paris, 1780. (Licence to print, dated 1723.) 

Bonannl, Filippo, Jesuit——Trattato sopra la vernice detta comunemente Cinese. Nuova ed. 
4engr. Bologna, 1786. 

BREUER, A. A.—Chinese inlaid lacquer. Chinese incised lacquer. 4 plates. In Burlington 
Magazine, XXV, 1914. 

Breuer, A. A.—The influence of China on Lacquer in Japan. Illus. In Japan Society’s 
Trans., XII, pp. 158-176, 1914. 

BURLINGTON Magazine Monographs.—Chinese Art. An introductory review of painting, 

. . etc. Illus. London, 1925. (Lacquer by W. W. Winkworth.) 

BUSHELL, Stephen W.—L’Art Chinois. Illus. Paris, 1910. (Chapter VI, Les Laques.) 

BUSHELL, S. W.—Chinese Art. Illus. 2 vols. 2 ed. London, 1921. One of the Victoria 
and Albert Museum Handbooks. (Chapter VI, Vol. I, Lacquer.) 

BUSHELL, S. W.—The Walters’ Collection of Oriental Ceramic Art. 

CEscINsSKY, Herbert.—Chinese Furniture. 

Crscinsky, Herbert.—Lacquer work in England. Illus. In Burlington Magazine, XIX, 
Iglr. 

D’ARDENNE DE T1zAc, H.—Animals in Chinese Art. 

DEBENHAM AND FREEBODY, Ltd.—The famous ‘‘ Shen Shao An” gold lacquer of Foochou, 
China. Illus. 1914. 

Du Hatpe, J. B.—Description . . . de la Chine. 4 vols. Paris, 1735. (Vol. II, p. 173, 
lacquer.) 

DumovutiER, G.—Etude sur les produits du Tonkin: La laque et les huiles 4 laquer en 
Tonquin, a la Chine et au Japon. Hanoi, 1892. 

ENCYCLOPEDIE ou Dictionnaire des Sciences, des Arts et des Métiers. Neufchatel, 1765. 

GEIEN SHINSHO, or selected masterpieces of paintings, sculptures and industrial art of the 
Orient. JIilus. . Toky6, 1915. 

GrosiEr, Abbé.—A general description of China. 2vols. 1788. (Vol. I, lacquer.) 

Hackmack, A.—Chinese Carpets and Rugs. 1924. 

Havarp, Henry.—Dictionnaire de l’ameublement. 4 vols. Jllus. Paris, 1887-1890. 
Vol. ITI, article Lacque, p. 255. 

HirtH, Friedrich.—Ueber fremde Einfliisse in der Chinesischen Kunst. Illus. Munich, 

1896. 

INCARVILLE, P. d’—Mémoire sur le Vernis de la Chine. In Mémoires . . . Acad. Royale 

des Sciences, XV. Paris, 1760. 


INCARVILLE, P. d’.—W. Watkin’s Kunst des Staffirmalers . . . Nebsteinem Anhang mit des 
Missionaires P. d’I. Denkschrift tiber Zubereitung des Chinesischen Lacks, etc. [Vol. 
10 of : Neuer Schauplatz der Kunst, etc.] 1834, etc. 


69 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Jacquemart, Albert.—Les Laques. In Gazette des Beaux Arts, IV and VI. 1859-1860. 

JACQUEMART, Albert.—A History of Furniture. 1878. 

Japan.—Nihon Kokuhs Zenshi. (Complete collection of Japan’s “national treasures.”’) 
Illus. 1923-1924. 

JapAN: Dept. of the Interior.—Japanese temples and their treasures. 3 vols. JIlus. 
Toky6, 1910. 

KircHer, Athenasius.x—China Monumentis, etc. Amsterdam, 1667. (Lacquer, pp. 220- 
222.) 

Koxxa.—The Kokka: a monthly journal of Oriental art. [Vols. I-XI, Koku-kwa.] 1889. 

KUEMMEL, Otto.—Bernalte Chinesische Lacke. Jllus. In Amtliche Berichte aus den 
K6nigl. Kunstsamlungen, XXXI, pp. 270-275. IgI0. 

KUEMMEL, O,—Ostasiatisches Gerat. Illus. Berlin, 1925. 

KUEMMEL, Otto.—Die Kunstgeerbe Chinas. Illus. (Vol. II, p. 748, lacquer.) 

LE Comte, Louis, Jesuit —Memoirs and observations . . . made in a late journey through 
the Empire of China... particularly upon Chinese pottery and varnishing, etc. 
Trans. from the Parised. 5 engr. London, 1697. 

MANCHESTER : City Art Gallery.—Catalogue of an exhibition of Chinese applied art. Man- 
chester, 1913. 

MUENSTERBERG, Oskar.—Chinesische Kunstgeschichte. JIllus. 2 vols. Esslingen a. N., 
1g10-1912. (Vol. II for Lacquer.) 

Nara: Shosdin.—Toyei shuko. An illustrated catalogue of ancient Imperial Treasury 
called Shosdin. 3 vols. Illus. Toky6, 1909. 

New York: American Art Galleries—Art treasures from the Imperial Palace, Pekin. 
Illus. New York, 1917. (Items 195-238 lacquer.) 

PALEOLOGUE, Georges Maurice.—L’Art Chinois. Illus. Paris, 1887. 

RocHE, O.—Les Meubles de la Chine. 1924. 

Secuy, E. A.—Les laques du Coromandel. Jilus. Paris, n.d. 

SPINK AND Son, Ltd.—Old Chinese lacquers, on view at. Illus. 1913. 

SPINK AND SONS.—A selection of Oriental works of art on view at. Illus. London (1924). 
(Six pp. of illus. only.) 

SPINK AND SON, Ltd.—Chinese carved lacquer, 15th to 18th century. (Introd. and notes 
by Lt.-Col. E. F. Strange, C.B.E.) London, 1925. 

STRANGE, E. F.—Catalogue of Chinese Lacquer in the Victoria and Albert Museum. 1925. 

STRANGE, E. F.—Chinese carved red lacquer. See Illustrated London News, CXVI, 72. 
Illus. 1922. 

STRANGE, Edward F.—An exhibition of Chinese lacquer. Jilus. In Burlington Magazine. 
June, 1925. 

Weser, V. F.—*‘ Ko-ji Hé-ten.”” Dictionnaire a l’usage des amateurs, etc. Illus. Paris, 
1923. (Article Laques chinois, I, p. 494.) 

YeTtTs, W. Perceval.—Symbolism in Chinese Art (China Society). 1912. 


7O 


INDEX 


Abundances, the Three, 30 
Antiques, the Hundred, 25 
Artemisia Leaf, 25 

Arts, Four Liberal, 25 


Bamboo, 28, 30 

Bantam, 10 

Bat, 28 

Blessings, Five, 28 

Bonanni, 9. J., 2 

Books, Pair of, 25 

Breuer, A. A., 20, 35 
Buddhism, 13 

Buddhist Emblems, Eight, 23 
Bushell; Dr. S$. W., 1, 6, 7, 8, 12, 14, 17, 28, 36 
Butterfly, 28 


Canopy, 24 

Canton, 11, 19, 20, 21 
Cash, 25 

Chambers, E., 10 
Chang Ch’éng, 15, 19 
Chao Kao, 12 

Ch’éng, Emperor, 12 
Cherry, 29, 30 
Chia-hsing Fu, 10, 14 
Chi’en Lung, Emperor, 7, 21 
Choyan, 19 
Chrysanthemum, 29 
Citron, 30 
Conch-shell, 24 
Confucius, 12 

Coral, 29 

Coromandel lacquer, 9 
Crane, 28 

Creative Principle, 24 


Dragon, 26 


East India Company, 10 
Elephant, 28 

Elixir of Life, 24, 28 
Entrails, 24 


Fish, 24, 28 
Foo-chow, 3, 20 
Fruits, the Three, 30 
Fungus, 29, 30 


Gardenia, 29 
Grape-vine, 29 


Hangchou, 10, 15 
Hare, 28 

Hobson, R. L., 59 
Horse, 28 

Horyii-ji Temple, 14 
Hsi-t’ang Yang-hui, 15 


7i 


Hsiian Té, 17, 20 
Hsui-shih-lu MS., 4 


Ibn Batuta, 19 
Imaizumi, Y., 12, 13, 51 
Immortals, Eight Taoist, 24 


Jewel, 25 


K’ang Hsi, Emperor, 20, 21 
Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens, 3 
Key-pattern, 30 

Kinho, 19 

Knot, Endless, 24 

Ko ku yao lun, 7, 14, 16 
Komyo-kogo, 14 

Korea, I, 13, 14 

Korschelt and Yoshida, 2 


Lacquer, brushes, 4 
Lacquer, burgautée, 8 
Lacquer, Burmese, I 
Lacquer, carved, 5—7, 15, 16, 21 
Lacquer, chemical analysis, 2 
Lacquer, colours, 8 
Lacquer, European, I 
Lacquer, export, 16 
Lacquer, gold, 4, 14, 18, 20 
Lacquer, imitations, 6, 7, 16 
Lacquer, Indian, 1 

Lacquer, inscriptions, 17 
Lacquer, nature of, 1 
Lacquer, relief, 4 

Lacquer, shell, 8, 14, 18 
Lacquer tree, I, 2 

Lao Tze, 23 

Le Compte, L., 20 

Leopold I, 21 

Lion, 27 

Lotus, 24, 29 

Lozenge, 25 

Lu-ling, 17 


Macao, 54 

Macdonald, Sir C., 36 
Magnolia, 29 

Mallow, 29 

Meander, 30 

Monniu, 7 

Months, the, 12, 29 

Musical Instruments, Eight, 24 
Musical Stone, 25 


Nanking, I0, 17 

Nara, Imperial Treasury, 8, 14 
Narcissus, 30 

Ning-kuo Fu, 17 


Oken, 19 
Orange, J., 53 


INDEX 


Orchid, 30 Shun, Emperor, 12 
Ornaments of Robes, Twelve, 24 Sinla, 13 
Oycan, 19 Si Wang Mu, 28 


Soochou, 10, 14, 20 
Squirrels, 29 


Painting, 25 Stag, 27 

Peach, 28, 29 Stalker, John, 9 

Pear, 29 Stork, 28 

Peking, 10, 17, 18 Svastika, 30 

P’éng Chiin-pao, 15 Swift, G., 48 

P’éng Lai Shan, 27 

Peony, 29 

Pheenix, 26 Ta-li Fu, 17 

Pine, 28, 30 Tea Ceremony, lacquer utensils, 19 
Pomegranate, 29, 30 Thunder-pattern, 30 

Poppy, 29 T’ien Ch’i, Emperor, 2 

Port Arthur, 13 Tiger, 27 

Precious Things, Eight, 25 Toad, 28 

Prunus, 28, 29 Toky6, Imperial Library, 12 


Tongking, 20 
Tortoise, 26 


Quadrants of Heaven, 27 Trigrams, Eight, 24 
Tutsui, 19 

Rhinoceros-horn cups, 25 

Roho, 19 Umbrella, 24 

Ryiizo Torii, 13 Unicorn, 27 


Vase of Relics, 24 


Saiko-Tenn6, 1 
oa Victoria and Albert Museum, 5, 21, 25, 29 


Seasons, Four, 27, 29 
Séguy, E. A., 9 


Seit6 Yomei, 12 Waley, A., 43, 45 


Semedo, A., 18 Wheel of the Law, 23 

Senchin, 19 

Shen Cheng Hao, 11 

Shen Shao An, 11 Yang Mao, 15 

Shih Huang Ti, Emperor, 28 Yetts, Dr. P., 16, 24, 27, 28, 30 
Shomu-Tenné, 14 Yomo, 19 


Shétoku-Taishi, 13 
Shou Lao, 23 
Shumin, 19 Zodiac, 27 





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PLATE XXIX 


(Upper.) Covered BOWL for Ceremonial Gift. In 
carved lacquer of red, green, buff, and 
aubergine. Height, 5 in.; diameter, 21 in. 
Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien Lung). 


Messrs. Spink & Son, Ltd. 


od 


(Lower, left.) BOX for Incense. In carved red solid 
lacquer. Height, 14 in.; width, 2} in.; 
length, 2f in. Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien 
Lung). 
Victoria and Albert Museum. 


(Lower, right.) BOX for Incense. In carved red and 
brown lacquer. Height, 2in.; width, 4% in. 
Ch‘ing Dynasty (Ch‘ien Lung). . 


Victoria and Albert Museum. 





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Ce Oe ad 74h) eae ea Be 
HAN-SHAN TANG Ltd. ae, 


717 Fulham Road, 
London SW6 5UL, 
Telephone 01-731 2447 


Seah 


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EA 





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3 3125 01645 0401 7 . 





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